Climate Change and Mitigation Strategies Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is climate change?

  • A shift in temperature and weather patterns caused by extraterrestrial activities
  • A shift in temperature and weather patterns caused only by human activities
  • A shift in temperature and weather patterns caused only by natural activities
  • A shift in temperature and weather patterns caused by both natural and human activities (correct)

    • What are the two types of climate change?

  • Man-made and extraterrestrial
  • Human-induced and extraterrestrial
  • Natural and man-made (correct)
  • Artificial and natural

    • What is an example of natural climate change?

  • Carbon capture and sequestration
  • Burning fossil fuels
  • Plate tectonics (correct)
  • Greenhouse gas emissions

    • What is an example of human-induced climate change?

    <p>Greenhouse gas emissions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can affect the global climate significantly?

    <p>Movement of continents from plate tectonics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the cause of the sun's energy balance changing?

    <p>Increased production of hydrogen and helium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Earth's orbit shaped as?

    <p>An ellipse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the effects of an excessive amount of greenhouse gases?

    <p>Harming the planet's cooling mechanism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who are the most vulnerable people to the negative effects of climate change?

    <p>Poor people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the factors that control emissions?

    <p>Technology, population, and affluence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is carbon capture and sequestration?

    <p>A strategy that involves capturing and storing carbon dioxide emissions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is solar radiation management?

    <p>A risky geoengineering strategy that involves increasing the Earth's albedo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is climate change?

    <p>Long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns caused by both natural and human activities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two types of climate change?

    <p>Natural and human-induced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of plate tectonics on climate change?

    <p>It can significantly affect the global climate by affecting the formation of ice sheets and ocean circulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is changing in the sun's energy balance?

    <p>The rate of fusion is increasing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What caused the deep freeze known as Snowball Earth 715 million years ago?

    <p>Earth's orbit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do greenhouse gases do?

    <p>They trap the sun's heat and can harm the planet's cooling mechanism, resulting in a warmer Earth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who are the most vulnerable people to the negative effects of climate change?

    <p>People living in small island nations, developing countries, or who are poor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the factors that control emissions?

    <p>Technology, population, and affluence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the responses to climate change?

    <p>Adaptation, mitigation, and geoengineering</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is carbon capture and sequestration (CCS)?

    <p>A mitigation strategy that involves capturing and storing carbon dioxide emissions or removing them from the atmosphere.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is solar radiation management?

    <p>A geoengineering strategy that involves increasing the Earth's albedo by injecting sulphate aerosols into the atmosphere or increasing cloud-condensation-nuclei in the clouds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some examples of energy sources that do not emit greenhouse gases?

    <p>Solar, wind, hydroelectricity, biomass, and nuclear energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the UNFCCC and when was it created?

    <p>An organization that focuses on reducing GHG emissions created in 1992</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the initial focus of research on adaptation?

    <p>Vulnerability and impacts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When was the adaptation fund launched by the UNFCCC?

    <p>2007</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of adaptation?

    <p>The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three types of adaptation?

    <p>Incremental, transitional, and transformational</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is mitigation not enough to address climate change?

    <p>Climate change is already occurring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the ideal characteristics of adaptation?

    <p>Being interdisciplinary, taking climate change into account, and being proactive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the objective of vulnerability and adaptation assessments?

    <p>To produce relevant information to diminish uncertainty, increase awareness, and monitor adaptation strategies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is finance restricting climate change adaptation?

    <p>Calculating the cost of adaptation is challenging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the UNFCCC and when was it created?

    <p>An organization created in 1992 to address climate change impacts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the initial focus of research on adaptation?

    <p>Ways vulnerable populations could adapt to future changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When was the adaptation fund launched by the UNFCCC?

    <p>2007</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of adaptation?

    <p>The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three types of adaptation?

    <p>Incremental, transitional, and transformational</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is mitigation not enough to address climate change?

    <p>Because the removal of all human-induced CO2 emissions will take hundreds of thousands of years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the ideal characteristics of adaptation?

    <p>Being complementary to mitigation, decreasing vulnerability, avoiding maladaptation, promoting innovation, being interdisciplinary, taking climate change into account, and being proactive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the objective of vulnerability and adaptation assessments?

    <p>To produce relevant information to diminish uncertainty, increase awareness, and monitor adaptation strategies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is finance restricting adaptation?

    <p>Because finance is not available for adaptation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the UNFCCC and when was it created?

    <p>An organization that focuses on climate change impacts, created in 1992</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When did the UNFCCC launch the adaptation fund?

    <p>2007</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of adaptation?

    <p>The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three types of adaptation?

    <p>Incremental, transitional, and transformational</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is adaptation important in addition to mitigation?

    <p>Mitigation is not enough because climate change is already occurring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the ideal characteristics of adaptation?

    <p>Being complementary to mitigation, decreasing vulnerability, avoiding maladaptation, promoting innovation, being interdisciplinary, taking climate change into account, and being proactive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the objective of vulnerability and adaptation assessments?

    <p>To produce relevant information to diminish uncertainty, increase awareness, and monitor adaptation strategies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of research on adaptation?

    <p>Addressing climate change impacts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the current status of adaptation in IPCC reports?

    <p>The number of chapters on adaptation in IPCC reports gradually increased since 2001, and sustainability is now being incorporated.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a natural factor that contributes to climate change?

    <p>Plate tectonics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three responses to climate change?

    <p>Adaptation, mitigation, and geoengineering</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of wind energy?

    <p>Intermittency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of biomass energy?

    <p>Greenhouse gas emissions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of hydroelectricity?

    <p>High investment costs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of nuclear energy?

    <p>Reactor safety and nuclear waste</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two methods to reduce carbon dioxide emissions?

    <p>Carbon capture and sequestration, solar energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of solar radiation management?

    <p>Political problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main cause of climate change?

    <p>Greenhouse gases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the pros and cons of solar energy?

    <p>Pros: Renewable energy and low maintenance costs. Cons: Intermittency and high initial costs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the pros and cons of wind energy?

    <p>Pros: Clean and renewable energy. Cons: Intermittency and environmental impact.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is biomass energy?

    <p>Energy generated by growing crops and burning them. Pros: Reliability and waste reduction. Cons: Greenhouse gas emissions and high costs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is hydroelectricity?

    <p>Electricity generated by water running through a dam. Pros: Minimal pollution and reliability. Cons: High investment costs and environmental impact.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are responses to climate change?

    <p>Adaptation, mitigation, and geoengineering.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the cons of nuclear energy?

    <p>Reactor safety and nuclear waste.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are methods to reduce carbon dioxide emissions?

    <p>Carbon capture and sequestration and carbon dioxide removal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is solar radiation management?

    <p>Increasing the Earth's albedo but has potential risks and political problems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the factors that determine emissions?

    <p>Technology, population, and affluence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the natural factors that contribute to climate change?

    <p>Plate tectonics, the sun, the Earth's orbit, and greenhouse gases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the responses to climate change?

    <p>Adaptation, mitigation, and geoengineering</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of solar energy?

    <p>Intermittency and high initial costs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of wind energy?

    <p>Intermittency and environmental impact</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of biomass energy?

    <p>Greenhouse gas emissions and high costs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of hydroelectricity?

    <p>High investment costs and environmental impact</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of nuclear energy?

    <p>Reactor safety and nuclear waste</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is carbon capture and sequestration?

    <p>A method to reduce carbon dioxide emissions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is solar radiation management?

    <p>A method to increase the Earth's albedo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are greenhouse gases?

    <p>Gases that have the ability to absorb and trap heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is black carbon (BC)?

    <p>A product of incomplete combustion that can absorb solar radiation and have a positive (warming) radiative forcing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is tropospheric O3?

    <p>A secondary pollutant and one of the largest single components of the current radiative forcing of climate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some examples of precursors to pollutants with negative or positive radiative forcing?

    <p>NOx, SO2, NH3, VOC</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some mitigation measures for air pollution and climate change?

    <p>Conservation, efficiency, abatement, fuel switching, demand management, and behavioral change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential impact of reductions in precursors of secondary aerosol?

    <p>An increase in temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one potential impact of increasing temperatures on ozone formation?

    <p>Changes in chemistry associated with ozone formation and potentially increase the flux of O3 from the stratosphere to the troposphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some mitigation measures that could reduce emissions of AQ and climate-active pollutants?

    <p>Fuel switching, combined heat and power, and efficiency improvements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some mitigation measures that could increase emissions of AQ pollutants?

    <p>Increased use of diesel in place of petrol and incineration instead of landfill</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are greenhouse gases?

    <p>Gases that have the ability to absorb and trap heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is black carbon?

    <p>A product of incomplete combustion that can absorb solar radiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is tropospheric O3?

    <p>A secondary pollutant that is formed through chemical reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some mitigation measures for air pollution and climate change?

    <p>Efficiency improvements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of reductions in precursors of secondary aerosol?

    <p>It will lead to an increase in temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can increase emissions of AQ pollutants?

    <p>Increased use of diesel in place of petrol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some pollutants that have negative or positive radiative forcing?

    <p>NOx, SO2, NH3, VOC</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the largest single components of the current radiative forcing of climate?

    <p>Tropospheric O3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some mitigation measures that could reduce emissions of AQ and climate-active pollutants?

    <p>Combined heat and power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are greenhouse gases?

    <p>Gases that have the ability to absorb and trap heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Black Carbon?

    <p>A product of incomplete combustion and can be a substantial part of PM2.5</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Tropospheric O3?

    <p>A secondary pollutant and one of the largest single components of the current radiative forcing of climate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some mitigation measures for air pollution and climate change?

    <p>Conservation, efficiency, abatement, fuel switching, demand management, and behavioral change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been observed in the UK from 2002 to 2020 due to mitigation measures?

    <p>Reductions in emissions of NOx, SO2, VOC, PM10, NH3, and CO2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some mitigation measures that could reduce emissions of AQ and climate-active pollutants?

    <p>Fuel switching, combined heat and power, and efficiency improvements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some mitigation measures that could increase emissions of AQ pollutants?

    <p>Increased use of diesel in place of petrol and incineration instead of landfill</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some mitigation measures that could increase emissions of climate-active pollutants?

    <p>Increased demand for products/services, increased use of coal for electricity generation, and the use of biofuels under certain circumstances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are precursors of pollutants with negative or positive radiative forcing?

    <p>NOx, SO2, NH3, VOC</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the likely effect of reductions in precursors of secondary aerosol?

    <p>An increase in temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the UNFCCC and when was it created?

    <p>A treaty to address climate change, created in 1992</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the UNFCCC's initial stance on adaptation to climate change?

    <p>It was rarely recognized</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When was a global goal for adaptation established and where?

    <p>In 2015 at the Paris agreement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why should adaptation be addressed with the same priority as mitigation?

    <p>Because climate change is already occurring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of adaptation?

    <p>The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three types of adaptation?

    <p>Incremental, transitional, and transformational</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the ideal characteristics of adaptation?

    <p>Being interdisciplinary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is estimated to be the cost of climate change adaptation per year indefinitely as a percentage of GDP?

    <p>5-20%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is vulnerability in the context of climate change?

    <p>The degree to which a system is able to cope with the effects of climate change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the UNFCCC and why was it created?

    <p>A treaty created in 1992 to address climate change measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When was the global goal for adaptation established and where?

    <p>2015, at the Paris agreement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why must adaptation be addressed with the same priority as mitigation?

    <p>Because adaptation and mitigation are equally important in addressing climate change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of adaptation?

    <p>The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three types of adaptation?

    <p>Incremental, transitional, and transformational</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated cost of climate change adaptation?

    <p>5-20% of GDP per year indefinitely</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is vulnerability in the context of climate change?

    <p>The degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the common adaptation priorities mentioned in the text?

    <p>Agriculture under pressure, protecting freshwater supplies, climate impacts on health, risks posed to the energy sector, and fisheries and local livelihoods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an adaptation assessment and what does it involve?

    <p>A process of calculating the risk, danger, exposure, adaptation, responses, and options</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the UNFCCC and why was it created?

    <p>A treaty created in 1992 to address climate change measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When was the adaption fund launched and why?

    <p>2007, to recognize the importance of adaptation in addressing climate change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the ideal characteristic of adaptation?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated cost of climate change adaptation?

    <p>5-20% of GDP per year indefinitely</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of vulnerability in the context of climate change?

    <p>The degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three types of adaptation?

    <p>Incremental, transitional, transformational</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between adaptation and mitigation?

    <p>Adaptation and mitigation are equally important</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some common adaptation priorities?

    <p>Agriculture under pressure, protecting freshwater supplies, climate impacts on health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an adaptation assessment?

    <p>A process of identifying the risks and options for adaptation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)?

    <p>An assessment of the health of Earth's ecosystems involving experts from 95 countries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the four types of ecosystem services?

    <p>Provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Economics of Ecosystems & Biodiversity (TEEB)?

    <p>An organization focused on economic drivers of ecosystem decline</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the importance of valuing ecosystem services?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the three-tiered approach of ecosystem valuation?

    <p>Identifying the problem and stakeholders, conducting a valuation assessment, and analyzing the distribution of costs and benefits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the problem with the economic invisibility of nature?

    <p>It affects decision-making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of TEEB?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the benefits of the MA's findings?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the costs of the changes made to ecosystems in the past 50 years?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)?

    <p>The largest assessment of the health of Earth's ecosystems involving experts from 95 countries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are ecosystem services?

    <p>Benefits people obtain from ecosystems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Economics of Ecosystems & Biodiversity (TEEB)?

    <p>A report that filled the gap in economic evidence provided by the MA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the three-tiered approach of ecosystem valuation?

    <p>Identifying the problem and stakeholders, conducting a valuation assessment, and analyzing the distribution of costs and benefits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is TEEB important?

    <p>The economic invisibility of nature is a problem that needs to be addressed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the benefits of valuing ecosystem services?

    <p>It can generate better information and identify true costs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What have been the effects of changes to ecosystems in the past 50 years?

    <p>Net gains in human well-being and economic development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) provide?

    <p>Authoritative information and broad consensus within the scientific community</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of TEEB?

    <p>To fill the gap in economic evidence provided by the MA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a challenge faced by the university in reducing its carbon emissions?

    <p>Increasing reliance on gas for decarbonising heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the total amount of CO2 emissions by campus in 2009/10?

    <p>6800t</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the expected reduction in CO2 emissions by 2030 according to the university's carbon management plan?

    <p>63%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of the university's demand reduction strategy?

    <p>To reduce the energy demand of buildings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the university's low carbon energy generation strategy?

    <p>To generate electricity from renewable sources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the fume cupboard project?

    <p>To reduce carbon emissions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the proposed annual fuel cost saving of the planned 1.4MW PV Array on SB?

    <p>£185K</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used by IPBES to describe the relationship between nature and people?

    <p>Nature's Contributions to People</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following services is not covered by the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES)?

    <p>Supporting services</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential downside of having an anthropocentric focus in the concept of ecosystem services (ES)?

    <p>It may promote an exploitative human-nature relationship</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential benefit of using ES to value nature?

    <p>To challenge exploitative practices</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the TEV framework?

    <p>A framework for assessing the value of nature in its own right</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the categories of value in the TEV approach?

    <p>Direct use, indirect use, option use, and non-use values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM)?

    <p>A method that uses a hypothetical market to elicit willingness to pay (WTP) or accept (WTA) values for changes in ecosystem service provision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the stated preference techniques for valuing environmental goods?

    <p>Open-ended, payment cards/ladders, bidding games, and dichotomous choice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the limitations of valuation techniques?

    <p>They are sensitive to scope and scale</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the reason behind changing the term 'Nature's Benefits to People' to 'Nature's Contributions to People'?

    <p>To include negative contributions from nature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of services are recognized by the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES)?

    <p>Provisioning services</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of the concept of ecosystem services?

    <p>Human-centric</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of using ecosystem services (ES)?

    <p>To reconnect society and nature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of valuing ecosystem services (ES)?

    <p>To raise awareness of their importance compared to man-made services</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the categories of value in the Total Economic Value (TEV) framework?

    <p>Direct use, indirect use, option use, and non-use values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM)?

    <p>A hypothetical market to elicit willingness to pay (WTP) or accept (WTA) values for changes in ecosystem service provision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Choice Modeling (CM) technique used for?

    <p>To survey respondents making choices across environmental goods with varying bundles of attributes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the limitations of valuation techniques?

    <p>They are insensitive to scope and scale</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an advantage of market-based valuation methods for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>They reflect the true economic value or opportunity cost to society</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of shadow prices for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>They require substantial data and are considered artificial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of production function for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>They are complex for multi-use systems and may result in double counting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of mitigation/restoration costs for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>They may have diminishing returns and difficulty in restoring functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of replacement costs for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>They may overstate WTP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an advantage of avoided damage cost for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It applies the precautionary principle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of hedonic pricing for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It is data-intensive and requires defined surrogate markets</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of travel cost estimates for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It is data-intensive and has restrictive assumptions about behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of contingent valuation for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It is sensitive to biases in survey design and implementation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of market-based valuation methods for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>They can be distorted by market imperfections and policy failures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of using shadow prices for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>They reflect the true economic value or opportunity cost to society.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of using production function for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It is complex for multi-use systems and may result in double counting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of using replacement costs for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It may overstate WTP.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of using avoided damage cost for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It applies the precautionary principle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of using hedonic pricing for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It is data-intensive and requires defined surrogate markets.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of using travel cost for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It estimates WTP for recreational sites based on observed behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of using contingent valuation for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It is sensitive to biases in survey design and implementation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of using choice modeling for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It has complex statistical design and analysis and can be burdensome for respondents.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of market-based ecosystem valuation methods?

    <p>They can be distorted by market imperfections and policy failures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of using shadow prices for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>They reflect the true economic value to society</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of using production function for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It is complex for multi-use systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of using mitigation/restoration costs for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>They have difficulty in restoring functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of using avoided damage cost for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It applies the precautionary principle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of using hedonic pricing for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It is data-intensive and requires defined surrogate markets</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of using travel cost estimates for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It is data-intensive and has restrictive assumptions about behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of using contingent valuation for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It is sensitive to biases in survey design and implementation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main disadvantage of using choice modeling for ecosystem valuation?

    <p>It has complex statistical design and analysis and can be burdensome for respondents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the National Forest in the Midlands?

    <p>A former coal mine turned into a sustainable living and working model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of tree cover in the National Forest in 2021?

    <p>22%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the mechanisms of tree planting in the National Forest?

    <p>Working with local authorities, land acquisition, and grant aid to landowners</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has the National Forest seen percentage increases in, in comparison to national trends?

    <p>Small mammals, bats, birds, and butterflies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Biochar?

    <p>A carbon-rich charcoal spread on land that could provide a huge opportunity for carbon capture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has increased visitor numbers, spending, and tourism jobs in the National Forest?

    <p>Sustainable low-carbon tourism, forest accommodation, and sustainable design principles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has funding been provided for in the National Forest?

    <p>Infrastructure development, Forest School training, and the outdoor learning network</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Green Social Prescribing practice support?

    <p>People to engage in nature-based activities to improve their mental health and wellbeing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What informs decision-making, raises awareness, and informs priority setting for the future management of the forest?

    <p>Ecological and socio-cultural valuation methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the National Forest in the Midlands?

    <p>A former coal mine turned into a sustainable living and working model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage increase in tree cover in the National Forest from 1991 to 2021?

    <p>22%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the mechanisms of tree planting in the National Forest?

    <p>Working with local authorities, land acquisition, and grant aid to landowners</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has happened to the population of small mammals, bats, birds, and butterflies in the National Forest compared to national trends?

    <p>Increased</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Biochar?

    <p>A carbon-rich charcoal spread on land that could provide a huge opportunity for carbon capture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been the impact of sustainable low-carbon tourism, forest accommodation, and sustainable design principles in the National Forest?

    <p>Increased visitor numbers, spending, and tourism jobs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the aim of Restoring Resilient Ecosystems?

    <p>To examine the essential elements required for ecosystem restoration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Green Social Prescribing practice?

    <p>Supporting people to engage in nature-based activities to improve their mental health and wellbeing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the source of funding for the National Forest project?

    <p>DEFRA, National Lottery Heritage Fund, Nature for Climate Fund, corporate sponsorship, individual donors, and private investors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has the National Forest achieved in terms of tree planting?

    <p>Planted 9 million trees in 30 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is biochar?

    <p>Carbon-rich charcoal spread on land</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the aim of Restoring Resilient Ecosystems?

    <p>To examine the essential elements required for ecosystem restoration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been the impact of sustainable low-carbon tourism in the National Forest?

    <p>Increased visitor numbers, spending, and tourism jobs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the Green Social Prescribing practice?

    <p>To improve mental health and wellbeing through nature-based activities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the National Forest funded?

    <p>DEFRA, National Lottery Heritage Fund, Nature for Climate Fund, corporate sponsorship, individual donors, and private investors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been the impact of National Forest projects on small mammals, bats, birds, and butterflies?

    <p>Percentage increases in all, in comparison to national trends</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What informs decision-making and raises awareness for the future management of the forest?

    <p>Ecological and socio-cultural valuation methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of Forest School training?

    <p>To use the forest for learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most produced cereal in the UK and what percentage of it is used for animal feed?

    <p>Corn, 48%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of cereal that is used for human food in the UK?

    <p>35%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of soy used for animal feed globally?

    <p>76%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the value of food waste and its equivalent GHG emissions in the UK?

    <p>£19 billion, 25 million tonnes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of soy used for human food globally?

    <p>4%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approach to farming that focuses on soil health and carbon sequestration?

    <p>Regenerative agriculture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential GHG savings of increasing farmland woodland?

    <p>0.7 MtCO2e per year</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area was transformed into a sustainable living and working model?

    <p>A former coal mine in the Midlands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How much has the tree cover increased in the National Forest in 30 years?

    <p>22%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What mechanisms have been used for tree planting in the National Forest?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following has seen percentage increases in the National Forest?

    <p>All small mammals, bats, birds, and butterflies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the aim of Restoring Resilient Ecosystems?

    <p>To examine essential elements required for ecosystem restoration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is biochar?

    <p>A carbon-rich charcoal spread on land</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has increased visitor numbers, spending, and tourism jobs in the National Forest?

    <p>Sustainable low-carbon tourism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Green Social Prescribing practice?

    <p>A way to engage in nature-based activities to improve mental health and wellbeing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What informs decision-making, raises awareness, and informs priority setting for the future management of the forest?

    <p>Ecological and socio-cultural valuation methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the water budget?

    <p>A tool that quantifies the flow of water in and out of a system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the main drivers for the storage of water in a catchment?

    <p>Ground geology and porosity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of changes in precipitation and temperature on the water budget?

    <p>Directly impact the water budget</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the methods of mitigation for water conservation and management?

    <p>Water conservation, enhancing water storage and management, improving water quality, promoting sustainable land use practices, and promoting forest conservation and restoration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the potential negative impacts of building more dams and reservoirs?

    <p>Negative impacts on ecosystems and water quality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are nature-based solutions (NBS)?

    <p>Designed to target climate change and can address biodiversity conservation, disaster risk reduction, green economy promotion, and further economic growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of wetlands on carbon dioxide?

    <p>Wetlands act as natural carbon sinks, absorbing and storing carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of water vapour on the Earth's greenhouse warming effect?

    <p>Water vapour is a greenhouse gas that accounts for about 60% of the Earth's greenhouse warming effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of shade balls in reservoirs?

    <p>To prevent evaporation during times of drought</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the UK is home to the National Forest?

    <p>The Midlands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the previous use of the land where the National Forest now stands?

    <p>A coal mine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    By how much has tree cover in the National Forest increased in the past 30 years?

    <p>22%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the mechanisms used for tree planting in the National Forest?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In comparison to national trends, what has the National Forest seen percentage increases in?

    <p>All small mammals, bats, birds, and butterflies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is biochar?

    <p>A carbon-rich charcoal spread on land</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been the impact of sustainable low-carbon tourism in the National Forest?

    <p>Increased visitor numbers, spending, and tourism jobs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Green Social Prescribing practice?

    <p>A practice that supports people to engage in nature-based activities to improve their mental health and wellbeing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the sources of funding for National Forest projects?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the water budget?

    <p>A hydrological tool that quantifies the flow of water in and out of a system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main driver for the storage of water in a catchment?

    <p>Ground geology and porosity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of changes in precipitation and temperature on the water budget?

    <p>Decreased precipitation in N latitudes and increased aridity in semi-arid areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the expected trend in demand for water from agriculture and urban uses within the next 30 years?

    <p>Increase significantly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some methods of water mitigation?

    <p>Promoting sustainable land use practices</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are nature-based solutions (NBS)?

    <p>Solutions designed to target climate change and can address biodiversity conservation, disaster risk reduction, green economy promotion, and further economic growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of shade balls?

    <p>To prevent evaporation during times of drought</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the Earth's greenhouse warming effect does water vapor account for?

    <p>60%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of wetlands in climate change mitigation?

    <p>They act as natural carbon sinks, absorbing and storing carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area was transformed into a sustainable living and working model?

    <p>A former coal mine in the Midlands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of tree cover in the National Forest as of 2021?

    <p>22%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the mechanisms used for tree planting in the National Forest?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What trend has the National Forest seen in terms of small mammals, bats, birds, and butterflies?

    <p>Percentage increases in all species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Biochar?

    <p>A carbon-rich charcoal spread on land</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has the National Forest done to increase visitor numbers, spending, and tourism jobs?

    <p>Implemented sustainable low-carbon tourism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Green Social Prescribing practice?

    <p>A practice that supports people to engage in nature-based activities to improve their mental health and wellbeing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of groups and organizations are involved in managing woodlands and community greenspaces in the National Forest?

    <p>Over 60 community groups and organizations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What funding sources are used to support the National Forest project?

    <p>A combination of DEFRA, National Lottery Heritage Fund, Nature for Climate Fund, corporate sponsorship, individual donors, and private investors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the water budget?

    <p>A hydrological tool to quantify water flow in and out of a system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main driver for water storage in a catchment?

    <p>Ground geology and porosity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the expected trend in water demand from agriculture and urban uses in the next 30 years?

    <p>Increase significantly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some methods of water mitigation?

    <p>Promoting sustainable land use practices</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of nature-based solutions (NBS)?

    <p>To address multiple issues including climate change, biodiversity conservation, disaster risk reduction, and economic growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of changes in precipitation and temperature on the water budget?

    <p>Decreased precipitation in N latitudes and increased aridity in semi-arid areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of building more dams and reservoirs on ecosystems and water quality?

    <p>Negative impact</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of wetlands in carbon storage?

    <p>They absorb and store carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of water vapour on the Earth's greenhouse warming effect?

    <p>Accounts for 60% of the Earth's greenhouse warming effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Introduction to Climate Change and Mitigation Strategies

    • Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns caused by natural or human activities.
    • Two types of climate change are natural, such as plate tectonics, the sun, Earth's orbit, and unforced variability, and human-induced, such as greenhouse gas emissions from burning fossil fuels.
    • The movement of continents from plate tectonics affects the formation of ice sheets and ocean circulation, which can significantly affect the global climate.
    • The sun's energy balance is changing, and the rate of fusion is increasing due to the production of more hydrogen and helium, which increases the density of the sun's core.
    • Earth's orbit is shaped as an ellipse with varying eccentricity over time, which caused a deep freeze known as Snowball Earth 715 million years ago.
    • Greenhouse gases trap the sun's heat, and an excessive amount can harm the planet's cooling mechanism, resulting in a warmer Earth.
    • Climate change can negatively affect health, food production, housing, and work, and the most vulnerable people live in small island nations, developing countries, or are poor.
    • Factors that control emissions are technology, population, and affluence, which determine the total amount of GDP consumed by a society.
    • Responses to climate change include adaptation, mitigation, and geoengineering strategies.
    • Mitigation policies encourage the transition from fossil fuels to energy sources that do not emit greenhouse gases, such as solar, wind, hydroelectricity, biomass, and nuclear energy.
    • Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) and carbon dioxide removal are other mitigation strategies that involve capturing and storing carbon dioxide emissions or removing them from the atmosphere.
    • Solar radiation management is a risky geoengineering strategy that involves increasing the Earth's albedo by injecting sulphate aerosols into the atmosphere or increasing cloud-condensation-nuclei in the clouds.

    Climate Change Adaptation: History, Challenges, and Strategies

    • The UNFCCC was created in 1992 and called for measures to address climate change impacts.
    • Research on adaptation was driven by vulnerability and impacts, and then shifted to focus on ways vulnerable populations could adapt to future changes.
    • Adaptation was rarely recognized by the UNFCCC as they assumed that a reduction in GHG emissions would be enough to control problems.
    • In 2007, the adaptation fund was launched by the UNFCCC, and in 2015, a global goal for adaptation was established at the Paris agreement.
    • The number of chapters on adaptation in IPCC reports gradually increased since 2001, and sustainability is now being incorporated.
    • Mitigation is not enough because climate change is already occurring, and the removal of all human-induced CO2 emissions will take hundreds of thousands of years.
    • Adaptation must be addressed with the same priority as mitigation.
    • The definition of adaptation is the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.
    • There are three types of adaptation: incremental, transitional, and transformational, each with different characteristics.
    • Ideal characteristics of adaptation include being complementary to mitigation, decreasing vulnerability, avoiding maladaptation, promoting innovation, being interdisciplinary, taking climate change into account, and being proactive.
    • Calculating the cost of climate change adaptation is challenging, and finance is restricting adaptation.
    • The objective of vulnerability and adaptation assessments is to produce relevant information to diminish uncertainty, increase awareness, and monitor adaptation strategies.

    Climate Change Adaptation: History, Challenges, and Strategies

    • The UNFCCC was created in 1992 and called for measures to address climate change impacts.
    • Research on adaptation was driven by vulnerability and impacts, and then shifted to focus on ways vulnerable populations could adapt to future changes.
    • Adaptation was rarely recognized by the UNFCCC as they assumed that a reduction in GHG emissions would be enough to control problems.
    • In 2007, the adaptation fund was launched by the UNFCCC, and in 2015, a global goal for adaptation was established at the Paris agreement.
    • The number of chapters on adaptation in IPCC reports gradually increased since 2001, and sustainability is now being incorporated.
    • Mitigation is not enough because climate change is already occurring, and the removal of all human-induced CO2 emissions will take hundreds of thousands of years.
    • Adaptation must be addressed with the same priority as mitigation.
    • The definition of adaptation is the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.
    • There are three types of adaptation: incremental, transitional, and transformational, each with different characteristics.
    • Ideal characteristics of adaptation include being complementary to mitigation, decreasing vulnerability, avoiding maladaptation, promoting innovation, being interdisciplinary, taking climate change into account, and being proactive.
    • Calculating the cost of climate change adaptation is challenging, and finance is restricting adaptation.
    • The objective of vulnerability and adaptation assessments is to produce relevant information to diminish uncertainty, increase awareness, and monitor adaptation strategies.

    Understanding Climate Change and Energy Sources

    • Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns caused by natural and human activities.
    • Natural factors that contribute to climate change include plate tectonics, the sun, the Earth's orbit, and greenhouse gases.
    • Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, also contribute to climate change.
    • Climate change can affect health, food production, housing, and work, with vulnerable populations being the most impacted.
    • Emissions are determined by technology, population, and affluence, with global temperature increasing with carbon dioxide emissions.
    • Responses to climate change include adaptation, mitigation, and geoengineering.
    • Solar energy can be generated through photovoltaic and solar thermal energy, with pros including renewable energy and low maintenance costs but cons including intermittency and high initial costs.
    • Wind energy can be generated through wind turbines, with pros including clean and renewable energy but cons including intermittency and environmental impact.
    • Biomass energy involves growing crops and burning them for energy, with pros including reliability and waste reduction but cons including greenhouse gas emissions and high costs.
    • Hydroelectricity is generated through water running through a dam, with pros including minimal pollution and reliability but cons including high investment costs and environmental impact.
    • Nuclear energy generates electricity through the energy in the nucleus of an atom, with cons including reactor safety and nuclear waste.
    • Carbon capture and sequestration and carbon dioxide removal are methods to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, while solar radiation management involves increasing the Earth's albedo but has potential risks and political problems.

    The Impact of Air Quality on Climate Change and Vice Versa: Mitigation Measures and Trade-offs

    • Air pollution refers to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that have a detrimental effect on humans and other living organisms.
    • Greenhouse gases (GHG) are gases that have the ability to absorb and trap heat.
    • Air quality can be precursors to pollutants with negative or positive radiative forcing, such as NOx, SO2, NH3, VOC.
    • Reductions in precursors of secondary aerosol are likely to lead to an increase in temperature.
    • Black Carbon (BC) is a product of incomplete combustion and can be a substantial part of PM2.5, absorbing solar radiation and having a positive (warming) radiative forcing.
    • Tropospheric O3 is a secondary pollutant and one of the largest single components of the current radiative forcing of climate.
    • Increasing temperatures will lead to changes in chemistry associated with ozone formation and potentially increase the flux of O3 from the stratosphere to the troposphere.
    • Mitigation measures for air pollution and climate change can be categorized into conservation, efficiency, abatement, fuel switching, demand management, and behavioral change.
    • Reductions in emissions of NOx, SO2, VOC, PM10, NH3, and CO2 have been observed in the UK from 2002 to 2020 due to mitigation measures.
    • Mitigation measures that could reduce emissions of AQ and climate-active pollutants include fuel switching, combined heat and power, and efficiency improvements.
    • Mitigation measures that could increase emissions of AQ pollutants include increased use of diesel in place of petrol and incineration instead of landfill.
    • Mitigation measures that could increase emissions of climate-active pollutants include increased demand for products/services, increased use of coal for electricity generation, and the use of biofuels under certain circumstances.

    The Impact of Air Quality on Climate Change and Vice Versa: Mitigation Measures and Trade-offs

    • Air pollution refers to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that have a detrimental effect on humans and other living organisms.
    • Greenhouse gases (GHG) are gases that have the ability to absorb and trap heat.
    • Air quality can be precursors to pollutants with negative or positive radiative forcing, such as NOx, SO2, NH3, VOC.
    • Reductions in precursors of secondary aerosol are likely to lead to an increase in temperature.
    • Black Carbon (BC) is a product of incomplete combustion and can be a substantial part of PM2.5, absorbing solar radiation and having a positive (warming) radiative forcing.
    • Tropospheric O3 is a secondary pollutant and one of the largest single components of the current radiative forcing of climate.
    • Increasing temperatures will lead to changes in chemistry associated with ozone formation and potentially increase the flux of O3 from the stratosphere to the troposphere.
    • Mitigation measures for air pollution and climate change can be categorized into conservation, efficiency, abatement, fuel switching, demand management, and behavioral change.
    • Reductions in emissions of NOx, SO2, VOC, PM10, NH3, and CO2 have been observed in the UK from 2002 to 2020 due to mitigation measures.
    • Mitigation measures that could reduce emissions of AQ and climate-active pollutants include fuel switching, combined heat and power, and efficiency improvements.
    • Mitigation measures that could increase emissions of AQ pollutants include increased use of diesel in place of petrol and incineration instead of landfill.
    • Mitigation measures that could increase emissions of climate-active pollutants include increased demand for products/services, increased use of coal for electricity generation, and the use of biofuels under certain circumstances.

    Adaptation to Climate Change: Concepts, Challenges, and Strategies

    • The UNFCCC was created in 1992 to call on nations to enact measures to address climate change and research on adaptation was driven by vulnerability and impacts.
    • Adaptation was rarely recognized by the UNFCCC as they assumed that a reduction in GHG’s would be enough to control problems until the adaption fund was launched in 2007.
    • In 2015, a global goal for adaptation was established at the Paris agreement, and the number of chapters on adaptation in IPCC reports gradually increased since 2001.
    • Adaption must be addressed with the same priority as mitigation because climate change is already occurring, and even if all greenhouse gas emissions are ceased, excess CO2 in the atmosphere will still cause consequences.
    • The definition of adaptation is the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.
    • There are three types of adaptation: incremental, transitional, and transformational. The ideal characteristics of adaptation include being complementary to mitigation, decreasing vulnerability, avoiding maladaptation, promoting innovation, being interdisciplinary, and more.
    • Finance is restricting adaptation, and the cost of climate change adaptation is estimated to be 5-20% of GDP per year indefinitely.
    • Vulnerability is the degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes.
    • Resilience and stability are important factors in adaptation, and adaptive capacity depends on the economic, social, and human resources of the entity.
    • An adaptation assessment is created by calculating the risk, danger, exposure, adaptation, responses, and options.
    • Strategies for climate change adaptation include reducing vehicle emissions, maintaining proper ventilation, and engaging in new activities to take advantage of changing climatic conditions.
    • Common adaptation priorities include agriculture under pressure, protecting freshwater supplies, climate impacts on health, risks posed to the energy sector, and fisheries and local livelihoods. Developing countries lack the capacity and financing required to implement their adaptation plans.

    Assessing the Value of Ecosystem Services for Human Well-Being

    • The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) found that humans have rapidly and extensively changed ecosystems in the past 50 years to meet growing demands for food, water, timber, fiber, and fuel.
    • These changes have led to net gains in human well-being and economic development, but at the cost of degraded ecosystem services, increased risks, and poverty for some groups.
    • The MA was the largest assessment of the health of Earth's ecosystems and involved 1360 experts from 95 countries, with review comments from 850 experts and governments.
    • The MA provided authoritative information, clarified broad consensus within the scientific community, and identified response options and priorities.
    • The MA's findings can be used for decision-making, management, assessment, capacity building, and research.
    • Ecosystem services, the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, include provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services.
    • The Economics of Ecosystems & Biodiversity (TEEB) was founded on the MA concept of ecosystem services and aimed to fill the gap in economic evidence provided by the MA.
    • TEEB focused on the underlying economic drivers of ecosystem decline and mainstreaming into economic decisions, inspired by the Stern Review's economic arguments for action on climate change.
    • Valuing ecosystem services can generate better information, identify true costs, improve decision-making, provide a basis for policy formation, and set incentives and regulations.
    • The value of ecosystem services is often taken for granted, but their importance and costs can be demonstrated, recognized, and captured through a three-tiered approach of ecosystem valuation.
    • TEEB's approach involves clearly identifying the problem and stakeholders, ecosystem services, methodology and indicators, conducting a valuation assessment, analyzing the distribution of costs and benefits, communicating the results, and selecting and implementing economic and policy instruments.
    • TEEB is important because the economic invisibility of nature is a problem, addressing losses requires interdisciplinary knowledge, different decision-making groups need different types of information and guidance, and successes need to be understood, broadcast, replicated, and scaled.

    Valuing Ecosystem Services: Approaches and Challenges

    • The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) changed the term "Nature's Benefits to People" to "Nature's Contributions to People" to include negative contributions from nature.

    • The Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) recognizes provisioning, regulating, and cultural services but does not cover supporting services.

    • The concept of ecosystem services (ES) has an anthropocentric focus and may promote an exploitative human-nature relationship.

    • ES can be used to reconnect society and nature and challenge exploitative practices.

    • The valuation of ES can lead to more informed decisions and raise awareness of their importance compared to man-made services.

    • The TEV framework captures all benefits that humans obtain from nature and even the value of nature in its own right.

    • TEV categories of value include direct use, indirect use, option use, and non-use values.

    • The TEV approach was used to assess the annual contribution of reef-and mangrove-associated tourism to the national economy of Belize.

    • Revealed preference (RP) methods are based on observations of individual choices related to an ecosystem service and are appropriate for direct and indirect use goods.

    • Direct market valuation approaches include market price-based, cost-based, and production function approaches.

    • Contingent valuation methods (CVM) use a hypothetical market to elicit willingness to pay (WTP) or accept (WTA) values for changes in ecosystem service provision.

    • The CVM approach requires a credible scenario, allocation of property rights, and a payment vehicle, and may use face-to-face, mail, telephone, internet, or group interviews.Valuation Techniques for Environmental Goods

    • There are various stated preference techniques for valuing environmental goods, such as open-ended, payment cards/ladders, bidding games, and dichotomous choice.

    • Technical validation involves estimating a bid function and testing the validity and reliability of the estimates produced.

    • Aggregation and discounting are necessary to calculate total WTP from mean/median WTP over the relevant population and to discount calculated values as appropriate.

    • The payment ladder and dichotomous choice elicitation methods are commonly used in valuation studies.

    • Choice modeling (CM) is a type of conjoint analysis that involves survey respondents making choices across environmental goods with varying bundles of attributes.

    • CM can combine qualitative and quantitative attributes, but it requires specialist statistical design and software, and sampling resources.

    • Group valuation is a combination of stated preference techniques with deliberative techniques, which offer a deeper exploration of environmental information, values, and preference formation.

    • The limitations of valuation techniques include the hypothetical nature of the markets, divergence between WTP and WTA estimates, insensitivity to scope and scale, and the complexity of goods.

    • To capture non-use values, sometimes the only way is to use valuation techniques.

    • Respondents may not reflect real-life behavior, and pre-valuation workshops may be necessary to better understand their preferences.

    • A survey of 300 households' WTP for mangrove protection in Benut, Malaysia, found that 56% of respondents stated a positive WTP, and the payment ladder and dichotomous choice elicitation methods were used.

    • A study on valuing quality changes in Caribbean coastal waters for heterogeneous beach visitors found that most locals do not snorkel or dive and that two groups were identified: snorkelers and non-snorkelers.

    Comparison of Different Approaches to Ecosystem Valuation

    • Market-based valuation methods use market prices to reflect private willingness to pay (WTP), but can be distorted by market imperfections and policy failures, seasonal variations, and currency variations.
    • Shadow prices reflect the true economic value or opportunity cost to society, but require substantial data and are considered “artificial”.
    • Production function links ecosystem functions to market values but is complex for multi-use systems and may result in double counting.
    • Mitigation/restoration costs are useful when valuing particular ecosystem functions, but may have diminishing returns and difficulty in restoring functions.
    • Replacement costs estimate indirect benefits when ecological data is not available for estimating damage functions, but may overstate WTP.
    • Avoided damage cost applies the precautionary principle, but data or resource limitations may rule out first-best valuation methods.
    • Hedonic pricing reflects private WTP based on observed behavior, but is data-intensive and requires defined surrogate markets.
    • Travel cost estimates WTP for recreational sites based on observed behavior, but is data-intensive and has restrictive assumptions about behavior.
    • Contingent valuation can measure non-use value and give an estimate of total economic value (TEV), but is sensitive to biases in survey design and implementation.
    • Choice modeling simultaneously elicits values for a range of goods and services, but has complex statistical design and analysis and can be burdensome for respondents.
    • Ecological valuation assesses an ecosystem's functional integrity, health, or resilience to sustain life, but requires measuring biophysical indicators such as diversity or carbon stock.
    • Sociocultural valuation considers the non-monetary value of ecosystem services and is based on the cultural contexts of a time and place. It can inform decision-makers and the public about varying perceptions of ecosystem services, inform priority setting for future management, and give an indication of the feasibility of new management regimes.

    Priority Risk Areas:

    • The accompanying Government Report of the CCRA2 names six priority risk areas: flooding and coastal change; health and wellbeing from high temperatures; water shortages; risks to natural capital; food production and trade; pests, diseases, and invasive non-native species.

    Sustainable Living and Climate Change in the National Forest

    • The national forest in the Midlands was formerly coal mines and has been transformed into a sustainable living and working model.
    • The National Forest has planted 9 million trees in 30 years, increasing tree cover from 6% in 1991 to 22% in 2021.
    • Mechanisms of tree planting include working with local authorities, land acquisition, and grant aid to landowners.
    • The National Forest has seen percentage increases in all small mammals, bats, birds, and butterflies, in comparison to national trends.
    • Restoring Resilient Ecosystems aims to unpick and examine the essential elements required for ecosystem restoration, focusing on UK woodlands and grasslands.
    • Biochar is a carbon-rich charcoal spread on land that could provide a huge opportunity for carbon capture.
    • Sustainable low-carbon tourism, forest accommodation, and sustainable design principles have increased visitor numbers, spending, and tourism jobs in the National Forest.
    • Funding for infrastructure development, Forest School training, and the outdoor learning network has been provided to use the forest for learning.
    • The Green Social Prescribing practice supports people to engage in nature-based activities to improve their mental health and wellbeing.
    • National Forest projects involve over 60 community groups and organisations managing woodlands and community greenspaces.
    • The project is funded by DEFRA, National Lottery Heritage Fund, Nature for Climate Fund, corporate sponsorship, individual donors, and private investors.
    • Ecological and socio-cultural valuation methods inform decision-making, raise awareness, and inform priority setting for the future management of the forest.

    Sustainable Living and Climate Change in the National Forest

    • The national forest in the Midlands was formerly coal mines and has been transformed into a sustainable living and working model.
    • The National Forest has planted 9 million trees in 30 years, increasing tree cover from 6% in 1991 to 22% in 2021.
    • Mechanisms of tree planting include working with local authorities, land acquisition, and grant aid to landowners.
    • The National Forest has seen percentage increases in all small mammals, bats, birds, and butterflies, in comparison to national trends.
    • Restoring Resilient Ecosystems aims to unpick and examine the essential elements required for ecosystem restoration, focusing on UK woodlands and grasslands.
    • Biochar is a carbon-rich charcoal spread on land that could provide a huge opportunity for carbon capture.
    • Sustainable low-carbon tourism, forest accommodation, and sustainable design principles have increased visitor numbers, spending, and tourism jobs in the National Forest.
    • Funding for infrastructure development, Forest School training, and the outdoor learning network has been provided to use the forest for learning.
    • The Green Social Prescribing practice supports people to engage in nature-based activities to improve their mental health and wellbeing.
    • National Forest projects involve over 60 community groups and organisations managing woodlands and community greenspaces.
    • The project is funded by DEFRA, National Lottery Heritage Fund, Nature for Climate Fund, corporate sponsorship, individual donors, and private investors.
    • Ecological and socio-cultural valuation methods inform decision-making, raise awareness, and inform priority setting for the future management of the forest.

    Water in Climate Change and Mitigation

    • The water budget is a hydrological tool that quantifies the flow of water in and out of a system.
    • Resilient water supplies ensure both quantity and quality support all aspects of socio-economic sectors.
    • Ground geology and porosity are the main drivers for the storage of water in a catchment.
    • Water vapour is a greenhouse gas that accounts for about 60% of the Earth's greenhouse warming effect.
    • Changes in precipitation and temperature directly impact the water budget, leading to increased precipitation in N latitudes and increased aridity in semi-arid areas.
    • Wetlands act as natural carbon sinks, absorbing and storing carbon dioxide.
    • Within the next 30 years, demand for water from agriculture and urban uses is expected to increase significantly.
    • Methods of mitigation include water conservation, enhancing water storage and management, improving water quality, promoting sustainable land use practices, and promoting forest conservation and restoration.
    • Building more dams and reservoirs may provide short-term solutions to water shortages but may also have negative impacts on ecosystems and water quality.
    • Nature-based solutions (NBS) are designed to target climate change and can address biodiversity conservation, disaster risk reduction, green economy promotion, and further economic growth.
    • Algae can remove as much carbon as all the trees, plants, and land combined.
    • Shade balls, black plastic balls that cover the surface of reservoirs, can prevent evaporation during times of drought.

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    Description

    Test your knowledge on climate change and mitigation strategies with this informative quiz. Learn about the different types of climate change and their causes, as well as the potential impacts of climate change on our health, food production, and society. Discover the various responses to climate change, including adaptation, mitigation, and geoengineering strategies, and explore the different technologies and policies that can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Challenge yourself and see how much you know about this pressing global issue.

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