Classical Criminology: Cesare Beccaria

• Study notes for Classical Criminology and subsequent theories

Cesare Beccaria (1738 - 1794)

• Beccaria was an Italian philosopher, a criminologist, and a jurist
• He is known as the founder of classical criminology
• He provided a central approach to understanding crime and punishment
• Beccaria's work influenced Jeremy Bentham's "pleasure-pain principle"
• He was a member of Milan's Literary "Academy of Fists"
• He opposed:
  • The death penalty
  • Torture
  • Excessive punishment
  • Tyranny
• Beccaria drew inspiration from two traditions of the Enlightenment movement:
  • Liberal tradition: Individuals behave rationally, prioritizing self-interest
  • Radical tradition: Individuals behave rationally, developing interests, passions, and morals based on societal arrangement
• His view on crime: "It is impossible to prevent all disorders in the universal conflict of human passions"
• He thought that disorders increase relative to the population and mixing of interests
• He argued these conflicts cannot be directed precisely towards public unity

Passions and Interests: The Roots of Classical Criminology

• Beccaria's insights laid the groundwork for classical criminology
• Individuals act rationally based on self-interest
• They seek to maximize pleasure and minimize pain
• People make rational calculations when deciding whether to commit a crime
• Reason is used to connect actions to outcomes

Beccaria on Law and Punishment

• "Let laws, therefore, be inexorable, and inexorable their executors in particular cases, but let the legislator be tender, indulgent and humane."
• Measured punishment creates an inevitable system to rationally disincentivize criminal acts
• Laws and punishment are ineffective when:
  • There is a conflict between the spirit and letter of the law
  • Laws are obscure and difficult to understand
  • Punishment is delayed
  • There is leniency/clemency
  • Punishment is overly severe

Beccaria: Summary

• Deviance and crime are rationally-derived realities
• Complex "modern" societies yield conflicting interests
• Unbridled individual passions can be controlled through reasonable, clearly defined legal institutions that carry out appropriate punishment
• Reason can affect deviance and crime through law and punishment

Kai Erikson (1931-)

• Erikson is an Austrian-born sociologist and criminologist
• He is a Professor Emeritus in Sociology at the University of Pittsburgh
• His historical study of Puritans (wayward Puritans) informed his theories on deviance
• Erikson questioned whether "deviance" can serve a predictive role in a social group or society

Notes on the Sociology of Deviance

• Deviance doesn't have inherent properties
• It relies on a social audience rather than an individual perspective
• Social audiences develop "screens" to determine the relative deviance of acts
• These screens take subjective factors into account and aren't tied to deviant acts themselves
• Punishment involves changing a subject's status through:
  • Confrontation: between deviant and their community (e.g., a trial)
  • Judgement: Diagnosis and identifying the deviant act (e.g., a verdict)
  • Placement: Assigning the deviant a new role (e.g., prisoner, inmate, patient)
• The permanence of being marked as deviant is understood
• Media (newsworthy news) provides the normative outline of society
• Inconsistent evaluation of deviant acts is a central issue for sociologists/criminologists

C. Wright Mills (1916-1962)

• Mills was central to the emergence of a unique US-school of Sociology
• He wrote from a distinct perspective, differing from US structural functionalists

The Sociological Imagination as a Way of Thinking

• Sociologists must be able to grapple with:
  • Personal troubles of milieu (biography)
  • Public issues of social structure (history)
• Using sociological imagination involves moving between the individual and the structural to explain a given issue as illustrated by the challenge of obtaining housing

Differential Association and Social Learning Theories

• Edwin Sutherland (1883-1950)
• He earned a PhD from the University of Chicago in 1913
• Sutherland was a dean of criminology
• He researched unhoused people, petty crimes, deviance, and white-collar crime
• He was an early thinker on how habitual action and interaction shaped behavior

A Theory of Differential Association

• Key Principles:
  • Individuals don't "invent" criminal behavior
  • It is learned through interaction
  • It results from intimate bonds
  • Learning involves "techniques" and "direction" which include motives, drives, rationalization, and attitudes
  • Motives are shaped by learning groups relation to laws
  • Deviance is shaped by exposure to positive definitions related to criminal activity and a lack thereof related to non-criminal activity
  • Differential associations that produce crime may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity based on when and how they are encountered
  • Learning criminal behavior is like other forms of learned behavior happening through a group
  • Criminal behavior is associated with needs and values but not fully explained by them
• Social ties can lead to, away from, or indifference toward criminal activity
• It's not structural conditions that produce criminal behavior
• Criminal behavior isn't the result of neighborhood disorganization

Troublesome Ties: According to Sutherland

• Key principles are the same as outlined in "A Theory of Differential Association"

Interactive Theory of Learning: "Becoming a Marihuana Smoker"

• Howard S. Becker (1928-2023)
• He was a member of the new Chicago school of sociology
• Becker considered the deviance of weed
• He refuted "trait-based" theories of deviance explored how deviance was socially constructed
• Becker considered the role of meaning-laden interactions in shaping behaviors deemed "deviant"
• Smoking marijuana must be socially learned
• Conditions to learning to smoke:
  • Through interactions
  • Learn to smoke in a way that gets you high
  • Recognize the effects connected to smoking weed
• Able to enjoy the sensation of recognized effects
• Social learning is required to smoke (and not traits)
• No one continued without feeling effects
• Unpleasant experiences associated with effects halted use
• Weed use and frequency changes across life

Sutherland's Differential Association v. Becker's Social Learning

• Similarities between these theories:
  • Technical competence is necessary to learning deviance/weed smoking
  • Meaningful deviance and perceived benefit is necessary
  • Agnostic towards deviance
• Differences between these theories:
  • Approach to topic (theoretical v. empirical)
  • Role of "intimate associations” v. “meaningful/pleasurable feelings derived from interactions"
  • Differences in generalized ability to the approach

Structural Functionalism and Foundations of Anomie & Strain Theory

• Orcutt's Aim:
• Applying Sutherland’s contribution to Becker's empirical case
• How people become marijuana users via differential association

Orcutt Brudgung Sutherland ti Becker

• Orcutt suggests Sutherland’s structure of casual techniques and motivations are central to Becker's account of Marijuana use
• Sutherland says learning involves techniques and direction
• Orcutt attempts to transcend meaning-laden interaction (Becker's qualitative data) to test the differential association hypothesis
• Orcutt tests the variables using survey options
• Number of ties can shape how often one partakes in the substance

Durkheim's Influence: Structural Functionalism

• It takes Durkheim's approach and considers how society functions
• Proposes individuals fit into designated, understood roles that make up a large functional social structure
• Argues for society to function, the individual internalizes norms
• Equilibrium: Societies are based on institutions and social norms
• Social differences etc operates on behalf the equilibrium
• Critics base critique on tautology

Structural Functionalism Contribution to the Study of Deviance: From Function to Dysfunction

• How economic structures and cultural notions undermine integration?
• What are mechanisms states of normlessness, deviance, delinquency?
• What "illegitimate" channels replace conventional?

From Function to Dysfunction (Anomie and Strain Theory)

• Anomie Theory:
  • Explained societies get higher crime rates
  • Fail to regulate behavior called "anomie" or normlessness

Classic Strain Theory

• Focuses individuals/groups more to engage in crime
• Individuals pressured into crime

Merton (Meyer Robert Schkolnick): Sources of Strain

• Structures:
  • Aspirational referents: "Culturally defined objectives, society"
• Acceptable modes: "limiting norms"
• Ethics of degree, work

Agnew: Revising Strain Theory

• Goal seeking = behavior blockage
• Intrinsically aversive
  • Recognition = recognition of abuse
• Adolescent feature: limited power to adverse situations
• Illegal behavior:
  • Escape
  • Remove aversion
• The reasons are:
  • Run away
  • Fight: literally
  • Steal: circumstances

Walter Reckless: Containment Theory

• External Containments such as:
  • Structured life
  • Limits and responsibilities
  • Structure of opportunity
• Achieving satisfaction
• Internal Containments feature:
  • Positive self-image
  • Norms and tolerance
• Pushing factors concern:
  • Poverty
  • Unemployment
  • Conflict and inequality
• Pull factors concern:
  • Crime glorification
  • Luring individuals
• Relating these varies from Hirschi's

The Chicago School of Urbanism (Urban Ecology)

• Industry settling
• Burgess modeled:
  • Loop circle
• High business

Zone 2 - Burgess Model

• Transition:
• Living migrants
• Industries
• Examples:
  • China town
• Little sicily zone
• Black belt
• Ghettos

Zone 3 - Burgess Model

• Settled early immigrations like:
  • Germans
  • Black people

Reading Shaw and Mckay

• Rate of highest delinquency in respective zones
• Outer diminishes
• Settlers cheaper
• Zone 1 is relieved

Shaw and Mckay test and explain:

• Shaw and Mckay test but rule out increases

Shaw and Mckay: Social Disorganization Theory

• Housing is dilapidated
• High turnover
• Low income
• Neighborhood levels can face:
  • Low economic status
  • Instability
  • Heterogeneity

Goffman: Labeling and Symbolic Interactionism

• How self-institutions relate
• “Dramaturgical analysis” = “theatrical performance
• “Asylums = Research “totalizing”
• Self = “Stigma”
  • Identity performances
• Everyday breaching
• Kind of identity
• Socialization process

Stigma

• Prevents “ normal” person from identified traits
• Assigned = original source of meaning
• Twofold:
  • Discredited = visibility
  • Discreditable = invisible qualities
• Central concern of “Normals" are stigmatized
• Consider sense of self which shapes it
• Intact interaction outcomes

“Mixed” Interaction Outcomes & Stigma

• Uncertainty can cause:
  • Stigmatization: does not know what normal thinks -Normal: exaggerated traits to sources
• Other elements include Cowering and Bravado hostility
• Rarely Hostile

Stigma = Conditions = Sense = Self

• Moral: individualism and meaning
• Two phases of socialization: (1) = Learns standing point of normal (2) = Possess stigma (3) Guarded meaning of understanding
  • Meaning exposed of " normal"

Labeling Theory & Marxian Theory of Deviance

• Examples: "Tell me about yourself"?
• Good practice = order the questions
  • Probes " walk through that" ?
• Labeling Theory
  • Inverts objective origins (1) Seek specific practices (2) React from others (3) Anti- effects

Becker: Outsiders

• Week focus on behavior= focus is criminogenic
• Not accepted stated that: "Scientists do not ordinarily question the label “deviant”

Becker's Perspective

• Deviance = Social / Politically Constructed
• Deviance product " Successfully applied one - too whom"

Marx Definitions of Social Class

• How do = Definition
  • Definition of Production for Class
• From means of production
  • Definition = Role in the production process
• Classes exists - Owners = owners of production " a.k.a the owners, Capitalists Ruling Dominance"
• Workers bourgeoisie = " sub class worker mass"

How Proletariat and Bourgeoise survive.

• Proletariat survives by selling labor
• Bourgeoise thru and off is more
• Pro = conflict
• Why
• Depending on of lab
• Bonger and arrangements
  • Innate deformity
  • Can adjust economy to groups + dispositions etc

Steven Spitzer Studies

• Punishment
• Policing
• Mass Men

Spitzer Deviancy and Classes

• Shape
  • Controlling deviance
  • Rebellion against norms
• Study deviance reliant on stress and the capitalism
• Bourgee rules
• Superstructures
• Contradictions to crises are frequent capitalism
• Potential undermine

Willem Bonger Capitalism Analysis

• Disposable labor " assist wealth
• Problems cause wealth neutralization
• Economic crises and effects
• Threats and capitalism from deviance
• Capital questions
  • Labour
  • Make profit
  • Disrupt consumption
  • Students reject role

Economic Issues

• Redundancy junk
  • Class that is harmonious and supportive
  • Class a junk group
• Dynamite class.
• Potential to harm/question labor
• Exposed class

Marx and Class Contradictions

• Leads Bourgeoise wages and results
• Decline consumption
• Results in an Overproduction
• Waste produced

Controlling of Deviance:

• Junk chronically ignored
  • Agents of welfare = View acute quickly
• Aggression
• Capital values
• Harm becomes and civil