Citing and Referencing Styles

• Citing related literature uses a standard style.

Citing

• Collection of books can provide info about a topic.
• Popular works published periodically focus on a subject of interest.
• Publications include news, events, interviews, and opinion articles.

Citing Methods

• By author/writer provides an example: according to Felipe (2015).
• By topic provides an example: "it has been found out that… (Felipe, 2015)".
• By chronology, the literatures are cited according to the year they were written, from earliest to latest.
• Example: Felipe states, "pregnancy is a condition where a woman should take extra care."

Referencing Styles

• APA, or American Psychological Association, is an author/date-based style.
• APA places emphasis on the author and date to uniquely identify the work.
• MLA, or Modern Language Association, applies in the arts and humanities, mainly in the USA.
• Harvard is very similar to APA.
• Harvard is used mostly in the UK and Australia.
• Harvard are encouraged for use with the humanities.
• Chicago and Turabian have two separate but similar styles and are widely used for economics and history.

Citation Samples

• Full note includes: Author's Name, Book Title: Subtitle, (Place of Publication: Publisher, Year), page #.
• Example of a full note: Salman Rushdie, The Ground beneath Her Feet (New York: Henry Holt, 1999), 25.
• Shortened note: Author Surname, Book Title, page #.
• A shortened note example: Rushdie, The Ground beneath, 28.
• Bibliography includes: Author Surname, First Name or Initial. Book Title: Subtitle. Place of Publication: Publisher/Year.
• Example: Rushdie, Salman. The Ground beneath Her Feet. New York: Henry Holt, 1999.

Ethical Issues

• Three relevant ethical issues for students writing related literature: plagiarism, language, and fraud.
• Plagiarism is described as knowingly taking another person's work and claiming it as your own (Neville, 2007).
• Blatant plagiarism is when a writer tries to deceive the teacher, aiming for grade or acclaim.
• Technical plagiarism occurs when the writer does not try to cheat but fails to follow the methods of revealing sources.
• Language use is an ethical consideration, recommending writers avoid racially-charged, sexist, and offensive language.
• In other words, sensitivity to the sensibilities of the audience is needed when writing.
• Fraud, the fabrication of data and results, research must observe the principles, avoiding fraudulent activities.
• To avoid fraud: Honesty, Objectivity, Integrity, and Carefulness

True or False Statements

• True: Considering the type of language to be used is a must in writing literature.
• True: Evaluation and analysis of text's meaning is needed when writing related literature
• False: Writers must include the source in a review.
• False: Changing information from the original text is ethical.
• False: Copying text from the internet without citation is ethical.

Sampling Techniques

• Sampling is a method or process of selecting respondents to yield data for a study.

Population and Sample

• Population refers to the bigger group from which the sample is drawn.
• Population refers to the total of all objects, persons, and characteristics into considerations.
• Population has characteristics the research aims to explore.
• Two types of population: target and accessible.
• Target population is the actual population, such as all STEM senior high students in Surigao del Norte.
• Accessible population refers to the portion with reasonable access.
• Sample is a representative collection of units from a population.
• Sample involves facts and evidence to support claims.
• Sampling has two types: probability and non-probability.

Types of Probability Sampling

• Simple random sampling offers an equal chance.
• Stratified random sampling divides into groups before selecting the samples.
• Systematic Sampling
• Cluster Sampling

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

• Convenience sampling
• Purposive sampling
• Snowball sampling
• Quota sampling

Probability Sampling / Unbiased Sampling

• Each member in sampling frame is given a fair shot during selection for participation.
• A sample is obtained capable of representing traits of population.

Simple Random Sampling

• All members of population have equal chance to be selected.
• Pure chance election gives all members the same opportunity.
• Fish bowl technique and roulette wheel are ways for Simple Random Sampling.
• Ex: 25 names of employees are drawn from a hat.

Stratified Random Sampling

• Stratified Random Sampling offers equal chance for all members in the population.
• Population divides into groups known as strata before samples are drawn.
• Samples from strata are randomly and not directly selected from entirety of population.
• Ex: Citizens aged 18-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50-59, and 60+, for various age groups opinions about religion

Systematic Sampling

• Systematic sampling selects samples every nth subject in the chosen population until arriving at sample size
• Thus, selection predicates on predetermined interval.
• Example: every 15th on a list; sample of 150 means select a set numbers 1 to 15 from 1,500 students

Cluster Sampling

• The process randomly picks intact groups with shared attributes.
• Like stratified random sampling, cluster sampling also involves subgrouping
• Clusters are areas where members can be found such as neighborhoods
• Ex: A researcher interviews teachers for academic adjustments during new normal

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

• Subjects are determined through study’s purpose and accessibility.

Purposeful/Purposive Sampling / Judgemental Sampling

• Samples are chosen by researcher following previously selected factors like expertise.
• Participants should reflect study’s goals.
• Ex: a COVID-19 study collects patients on data saturation

Convenience Sampling

• It collects data from a pool known as "accidental.”
• Willingness counts here and engagements involve counting non-probability sampling.
• It's the most used for being accessible and simple
• If in campus, one may consider employees that show willingness in surveys.

Snowball Sampling / Chain Referral Sampling / Refer to Refer Sampling

• This is applicable when one lacks awareness on the best individuals.
• During discussions, candidates suggest members
• The tactic is referring researchers to potentially contributing figures.

Quota Sampling

• This uses allocated presets before any process happens.
• Method collects data from characters and quotes.
• You make sample predictions sharing similar traits of those in target population.
• Ex: cigarette company finds out age group per brand city-wide and it’s quota age based

Research Method / Qualitative

• Creswell explains qualitative design explores why and how a phenomena exists.
• Thus, subjective findings amass written and opposed to numeric.

Research Design

• Case Study
• Ethnography
• Content Analysis
• Phenomenological
• Grounded Theory
• Historical

Case Study

• Analysis happens through dialogues,
• Ex: looking at a missing persons crime,

Ethnography

• Ethnography explores communities lifestyle
• Ex: Ang Pamumuhay at Dayalekto ng Tribong Badjao sa Pilipinas

Content Analysis

• Content analysis dives into subject matter, finding impact in society
• Ex: Ang Kabayanihan at Kabaklaan sa mga Piling Pelikula ni Jose Marie Viceral Taon 2013-2017

Phenomenology

• Phenomenology seeks how one thinks and feels through explanations.
• Ex: BATANG INA: The Lives Experiences of Teenage Mothers.

Grounded Theory

• Grounded Theory produces theories using empirical data.
• Ex: looking into whether Parents avoid PTA meeting.

Historical Analysis

• Historical analysis checks past incidents in present times
• Ex: it looks into law roots effects

Participants

• Refers to study respondents that are explained more in detail.
• The base of selection needs discussing based on one research principle method

Primary Data Collection Techniques

• Interview
• Participant Observation
• Focus Group Discussion
• Observational Evaluation
• Biography/Autobiography
• Questionnaire