China's Golden Age: Tang and Song Dynasties

• These study notes cover China and the world, the reemergence of a unified China, the Song Dynasty, relationships with northern nomads, and comparisons with Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.

Reemergence of a Unified China

• The Tang and Song dynasties are regarded as a "golden age".
• The Song Dynasty embraced Neo-Confucianism, while the Tang Dynasty adopted Buddhist and Taoist beliefs.
• The Tang Dynasty emerged (618-907), followed by the Song Dynasty (960-1279).
• Arts, literature, poetry, painting, and ceramics were major accomplishments during this golden age.
• The civil service exams introduced new efforts to prevent cheating with stricter rules and candidates being numbered instead of named.
• Civil service exams were still biased towards the wealthy when hiring government officials, and they encroached on peasant plots.
• Remarkable agricultural achievements and a booming economy marked the Song Dynasty.
• The Song Dynasty had entertainment like restaurants, actors, and games.
• Industrial production, the iron industry, logical innovation, and gunpowder soared.
• Gunpowder led to a stronger military, and there was increased commercialization.

Women in the Song Dynasty

• Women were generally submissive and passive.
• Neo-Confucian beliefs restricted women and emphasized keeping females and males separate.
• Expectations for men changed from athletic to academic.
• Women had strict boundaries, were not allowed to remarry if their husbands died, and were viewed as a nuisance to men.
• Foot binding, involving wrapping girls' feet and causing them to break, was intensely painful.
• Elite women and dancers started foot binding.
• Foot binding was a source of pride and a rite of passage.
• Women were harshly judged and had stricter social classes than men.
• They had jobs as maids and restaurant workers.
• Education was promoted for women in the Song Dynasty.

China and the Northern Nomads

• China saw itself as the "Middle Kingdom," the center of the world.
• China shared with nomads, "shedding its light."
• The kowtow was a series of rituals to present tribute to Chinese culture.
• The tribute system was similar to a peace treaty.
• China contrasted itself with the "rude cultures and primitive life" of nomads, who were seen as "like beasts and birds."
• China permitted access to Chinese wealth and wisdom under controlled conditions, establishing the tribute system.
• Nomads had to acknowledge Chinese superiority and practice the kowtow.
• The tribute system regulated relationships with nomads.
• Nomads/barbarians presented tribute.
• China recognized nomads as political equals, confronting small-scale groups, not just individuals.
• In exchange for gifts and access, nomads did not attack.
• Punishment was issued for bringing poor crops.

Cultural Influence Across the Ecological Frontier

• Nomads were "becoming Chinese."
• This was the furthest among the Jurchen.
• New religions were introduced to China.
• Nomads ruled parts of China.
• Chinese culture had large impacts on nomads.
• Southern China absorbed more culture than the North.
• The Tang Dynasty ruler was nomadic and Chinese.
• Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Manichaeism spread.

Comparing China with Korea, Vietnam, and Japan; Korea and China

• Korea was developing separately from China.
• It was originally conquered by the Han Dynasty.
• Korea was more advanced than nomads, agriculturally.
• It had a distinct identity.
• Korea did not take culture from China but set up for Chinese influence.
• It allied with the Tang Dynasty but turned independent.

China and Mongols

• 1209-1279: Mongols conquered China, resulting in a unified China.
• The Mongols were granted the Mandate of Heaven despite foreign origins.
• 1271-1294: Kublai Khan ruled Mongol China.
• Mongols would not endure Muslims, who they treated as slaves.

Good

• Mongols were granted the Mandate of Heaven after "unifying" China.
• The invasion of Southern China (Song) was less violent and destructive.
• As much wealth was extracted as possible from China.
• China's administrative practices, taxation techniques, and postal system were used.
• Kublai improved roads, canals, lowered taxes.
• There was greater support for Mongol China, other religions, Daoist temples, and merchants.

Bad

• The invasion of northern China was characterized by destruction.
• Mongol rule was harsh and foreign to China.
• It did not accommodate every aspect of Chinese culture.
• The Chinese examination system was ignored, and foreigners were relied on to take jobs as government officials.
• Discrimination was directed towards Chinese people.
• The Chinese received the most severe punishments.
• Mongols did not learn Chinese and forbade intermarriage with Chinese.

Persia and the Mongols

• 1219-1221: First invasion led by Genghis Khan.
• 1251-1258: Second invasion led by Khan's grandson.
• The sacking of Baghdad in 1258 put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate; it was called a "disaster on a grand scale."

Good

• Wine production increased, and the Persian silk industry benefitted.
• Some efforts were made to repair the damaged caused by their military and neglected irrigation channels.
• Mongols who captured Persia became Muslim, and a number turned to farming, abandoning nomadic ways.

Bad

• It was more destructive than the conquest of China.
• Mongol victory came with ferocity and slaughter of millions.
• Approximately 200,000 people were murdered.
• Mongol rule led to damage to Persian agriculture, heavy taxes, torture, whippings, and forced peasants to leave.
• The Abbasid Caliphate's irrigation system was left to dust, and good agricultural land was reduced to waste.

Russia and the Mongols

• Land was not useful for Mongols.
• Cities that fought were devastated, but cities that collaborated were left unharmed.
• Moscow served as a collector of tribute.
• Russian culture was not changed because Mongols did not settle.

Good

• Mongols did not live in Russia.
• Russian prices benefited as they were able to manipulate their role.
• The Russian Orthodox Church flourished as religious toleration.
• Nobles who participated in Mongol raids got some of the treasure.

Bad

• Catapults and battering rams were new weapons used to conquer Russia.
• Survivors were deported or sold into slavery.
• Russia did not recover for more than a century.
• The Mongols thought Russia had little to offer.
• Russia was dominated and exploited without Mongols leaving the steppes.
• Additional taxes were created for Russian inhabitants, and thousands of Russians were sent to slavery.

The Mongol Empire as a Eurasian Network

• Merchants were paid over the asking price.
• Mongols introduced standard weights and measurements to conquered lands.
• Two ends of the Eurasian continent were brought together.
• 1241-1242: Mongol armies destroyed Polish, German, and Hungarian forces.
• Mongols returned back to Mongolia but still maintained control over land.
• Most conquered by Mongols feared their return due to religious tolerance brought traders and missionaries from afar.
• International commerce was promised and taxed from wealthy cities.
• Merchants had a tax break.
• The Silk Road was very good for trading.
• The Mongol trading circuit was a central element in a larger commercial network.
• Diplomatic relationships were promoted from all ends of Eurasia.
• Mongol armies destroyed Polish, German, and Hungarian forces.
• After Mongols returned to Mongolia, Western Europe lacked adequate pasture.
• European rulers hoped to gain aid from Mongols and convert Mongols to Christianity.
• Exchanges between China and Persia were regulated by Mongols.
• Ambassadors were exchanged, and intelligence, information, and trade were shared.
• Culture changed due to an economic shift.
• Many places of worship in the capital existed for all religions.
• Ideas and techniques were exchanged from a variety of people.
• Painting, printing, gunpowder weapons, and acupuncture were taken into Mongolia.

The Plague

• 1331: The plague initially erupted in northeastern China.
• It was transmitted from fleas to humans.
• It spread across the Silk Road of the Mongol empire.
• It reached Western Europe by 1347 and commonly infected people, leading to death in a few days.
• There were peasant revolts in Europe.
• The population in the Mongol world contracted, cities declined, and the volume of trade diminished.
• By 1350, the Mongol empire lost control of China, Persia, and Russia.
• Muslim astronomers brought their skills and knowledge to China.
• Plants circulated throughout the trade and empire, including lemons and carrots from the Middle East.
• Europeans were less developed than the Mongol empire.
• Europe blamed the Mongol invasion for spreading the plague, which was associated with swellings of the throat, high fever, and internal bleeding.
• The plague killed hundreds of people.
• In Europe, 1/3 to 2/3 of the population died from the plague.
• In Italy, they dealt with it by establishing quarantines, hiring doctors, and organizing burials.
• Some believed the plague was God's judgment of their ways.
• Jews were sometimes held responsible for spreading the plague.
• The initial outburst in Europe caused labor shortages.
• This led to conflict between scarce workers.
• Workers sought and received higher wages, more employment opportunities for women, and the central trade route largely closed.