Child Development: Principles and Domains

• Child development includes physical, intellectual, emotional, and social growth from conception to adulthood.
• Development is shaped by innate and external factors like family, society, and culture.

Principles of Development

• Development is lifelong and changes occur across the lifespan.
• Development is multidirectional.
• Development is multidimensional, including:
  • Physical Domain: Changes in height and weight, motor skills, sensory capabilities, and nervous system.
  • Cognitive Domain: Changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory, and language.
  • Social and Emotional Domain: Changes in emotion, self-perception, and relationships.
• All three domains influence each other, and changes in one area can prompt changes in others.
• Development is characterized by plasticity, the ability to change.
• Early experiences matter, but children can overcome adversity.
• Development is multicontextual.
• Responses are based on circumstances.
• Behaviors, motivations, emotions, and choices are interconnected.

Periods of Development

• Prenatal Development (Conception through Birth)
  • Conception occurs, and major body structures form.
  • Maternal health is crucial, focusing on nutrition, avoiding teratogens, and understanding labor and delivery.
  • Stages include Germinal (first two weeks), Embryonic (weeks 3-8), and Fetal (weeks 9 to birth).
• Infancy and Toddlerhood (Birth through Two Years)
  • Dramatic growth and transformation occur.
  • Newborns evolve into walking, talking toddlers, requiring caregivers to provide constant guidance and safety.
• Early Childhood (Three to Five Years)
  • Preschool years involve learning language, gaining independence, and understanding the physical world.
  • Preschoolers may have interesting conceptions of size, time, and distance.
• Middle Childhood (Six to Eleven Years)
  • Connected to early grades in school, focusing on learning and assessing academic skills.
  • Comparing abilities with peers occurs, and children refine motor skills and learn social relationships.
• Adolescence (Twelve to Adulthood)
  • Physical growth spurt and sexual maturation occur
  • Cognitive changes happen as abstract concepts emerge
  • Invincibility can lead to accidents or sexually transmitted infections.

Issues in Development

• Nature and Nurture: Debate on the contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture); both interact to shape development.
• Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Debate on whether development is gradual or a series of stages.
• Active vs. Passive: Debate on whether children actively shape their development.
• Universal vs. Context-Specific: Debate on whether development is universal or varies across cultures.
• Stability vs. Change: Debate on whether traits remain stable or change over time.

Developmental Theory

• Developmental theory explains systematic changes physically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially
• Explores how people grow, adapt, and change via maturation, influences, and relationships.
• It is important to identify stages, milestones, and challenges.
• It emphasizes development as a gradual process and guides intervention strategies.

Key areas of Development

• Physical Growth in body size, motor skills, and biological changes.
• Cognitive Learning, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making.
• Emotional & Social Understanding emotions, relationships, and social interactions.

History of Child Development Theories

• Before the 20th Century: Limited study of childhood development.
• Early 1900s: Focus on abnormal behavior in children.
• Mid to Late 20th Century: Interest in typical child development

Why are Child Development Theories Important?

• Understanding child development helps in:
  • Appreciating growth from birth to adulthood.
  • Identifying factors that influence behavior.
  • Applying insights to education, parenting, and social policies.

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
• Known for psychoanalytic theory, emphasizing the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.
• Personality develops in stages, and unresolved conflicts lead to fixations in adulthood.

5 Stages of Psychosexual Theory

• Stage 1: Oral Stage (Birth to 1 Year)
  • Erogenous Zone: Mouth
  • Infants find pleasure in sucking and oral stimulation
  • Feeding develops trust and comfort with caregivers.
  • Key Conflict: Weaning from breastfeeding or bottle-feeding.
  • Possible Fixation: Dependency, aggression, or habits like smoking, nail-biting, and overeating.
• Stage 2: Anal Stage (1 to 3 Years)
  • Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
  • Focus on toilet training leads to independence & accomplishment.
  • Key Conflict: Parental approach to toilet training.
  • Possible Fixation:
    • Lenient Training: Anal-expulsive (messy, disorganized).
    • Strict Training: Anal-retentive (perfectionist, obsessive).
• Stage 3: Phallic Stage (3 to 6 Years)
  • Erogenous Zone: Genitals
  • Children become curious about gender differences.
  • Oedipus Complex (boys): Desire for mother, rivalry with father.
  • Electra Complex (girls): Desire for father, "penis envy".
  • Resolution occurs when children identify with their same-sex parent.
• Stage 4: Latency Stage (6 Years to Puberty)
  • Erogenous Zone: Dormant Sexual Feelings
  • Sexual urges are suppressed as children focus on social skills, friendships, and hobbies.
  • Development of self-confidence, communication skills, and moral values.
  • Fixation in this stage may lead to immaturity and difficulty in forming relationships in life.
• Stage 4: Genital Stage (Puberty to Adulthood)
  • Erogenous Zone: Mature Sexual Interests
  • Libido becomes active again
  • Unlike earlier stages, individuals balance urges with social norms
  • Successful resolution leads to a responsible personality.

Eric Erickson's Psychosocial Development Theory

• A German American psychologist developed the Psychosocial Development Theory, which outlines eight stages of human development from infancy to old age.
• Erickson emphasized social and emotional growth and challenges throughout life that shape personality and relationships.

8 Stages of Psychosocial Development

• Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 Year)
  • Crisis: Can I trust the world?
  • Values: Hope
  • A baby is entirely dependent on caregivers for food, comfort, and security.
  • Meeting needs consistently leads to trust; neglect leads to mistrust.
• Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Early Childhood: 1 to 3 Years Old)
  • Crisis: Can I do things by myself?
  • Values: Will
  • Children become curious and independent, learning to perform simple tasks.
  • Encouragement leads to self-confidence; criticism leads to self-doubt.
• Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool: 3 to 6 Years Old)
  • Crisis: Am I good or bad?
  • Values: Purpose
  • Children take initiative by asking questions, playing pretend, and making decisions.
  • Encouragement leads to feeling useful; constant criticism leads to guilt.
• Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age: 6 to 12 Years Old)
  • Crisis: Can I achieve things?
  • Values: Competence
  • In school, children develop a sense of accomplishment, and praise leads to confidence.
  • Criticism can lead to inferiority.
• Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence: 12 to 18 Years Old)
  • Crisis: Can I achieve things?
  • Values: Competence
  • Teenagers explore their identity
  • Support leads to a strong sense of self; pressure leads to identity confusion.
• Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood: 18 to 40 Years Old)
  • Crisis: Can I form meaningful relationships?
  • Values: Love
  • Young adults seek deep connections, and success leads to love and companionship.
  • Avoiding connections may lead to isolation.
• Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood: 40 to 65 Years Old)
  • Crisis: Am I making a difference? -Values: Care
  • Adults contribute to society, and meaningful work leads to fulfillment.
  • Feeling useless may lead to stagnation.
• Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood: 65+ Years Old)
  • Crisis: Did I live a meaningful life?
  • Values: Wisdom
  • Older adults reflect on their lives.
  • Contentment leads to integrity; regrets lead to despair.

Why Does Erikson's Theory Matters Today?

• It helps us understand human behavior and emotions.
• It emphasizes the importance of social support.
• It proves that personal growth is lifelong.
• It applies to different areas of life, including education, work and parenting.

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

• Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors learned through interactions.

Key contributors of Behaviorism

• John B. Watson: Founder of behaviorism.
• B.F Skinner: Developed operant conditioning.
• Ivan Pavlov: Discovered classical conditioning.

Key Principles of Behaviorism

• Behaviours are influenced from the Environment
  • Humans are "tabula rasa".
• Learning occurs through conditioning
  • Two major types shape behavior:
    • Classical Conditioning
    • Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) – Learning Through Association

• Occurs when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a meaningful stimulus until it triggers the same response.

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) – Learning Through Consequences

• States that behaviour is shaped by rewards and punishments.
  • Reward = repetition
  • Punishment = avoid repetition

Learning Process in Infancy

• Habituation and Dishabituation:
  • Habituation: Infants stop responding to repeated stimuli.
  • Dishabituation: Renewed interest when something new appears.
• Classical Conditioning: learning by association
• Operant conditioning: the use of rewards and consequences for learning

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

• States that actions are not learned through conditioning
• Rather, learned by watching others.

Key concept of Social Learning Theory

• Vicarious Reinforcement highlights how individuals don't need to experience reinforcement directly; they can learn through seeing others' experiences

Reciprocal Determinism

• Proposed that behavior is influenced by a continuous interaction between the individual, their environment, and their behavior.

Piaget's Cognitive Development

• Focuses on how children's thinking develops and differs from that of adults
• Believed that intellectual skills change through maturation, meaning children of different ages interpret the world in different ways

Cognitive Equilibrium

• Occurs when something new or unfamiliar occurs
• We feel a sense of imbalance and try to restore equilibrium by either adjusting our thinking (accommodation) or interpreting the new experience through what we already know (assimilation).

Assimilation

• One way to make sense of new experiences is to focus on how they are similar to what we already know.

Accommodation

• Another way to make sense of the world is to change our mind.

4 stages of Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor stage (Birth to 2 Years)

  • Infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions Object permanence

• Pre-Operational stage (Ages 2 to 7)

  • Children have the ability to use symbols, language to signify objects and ideas
  • While they can think symbolically, their thinking is still pre-logical.

• Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7 to 11) Children begin to think logically about the physical world. They understand concepts like size, distance, and conservation.

• Formal Operational Stage (Ages 12 and Beyond) Abstract thinking, freedom and morality

Types of Mental Function

• Lower Mental Functions those with which we are born, are the natural functions and are genetically determined
• Higher Mental Functions acquired and developed through social interaction

Two Main Principles/Elements

• The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) Refers to anyone who has a better understanding or higher ability level than the learner.
• Zone of Proximal Development Refers to the difference between what a child can accomplish alone and what he/she can accomplish with the guidance of another.

Features of Zone Proximal Development

• 1. Scaffolding the teacher help that assist the learner in accomplishing a task
• 2. Reciprocal Teaching environment of open dialogue between student and teacher which goes beyond a simple question-and-answer session

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System Theory

• States that an individual's development is influenced by other environmental systems

5 stages of Ecological Systems

• Microsystem
  • first level and are those that have direct contact with the child in their immediate environment
• Mesosystem
  • functions independently
• Exosystem
  • Governments, media and etc
• Macrosystem
  • Focus on how cultural elements affect child's development
• Chronosystem
  • Relates to transitions over the child's lifetime

Conception, Heredity, and Prenatal Development, Birth and Newborn

• Marks the beginning of a new life.
• sperm cell from the father joins with an egg cell from the mother
• Creates a single cell called a zygote :genetic information to develop into a person.
• Heredity- the passing of traits from parents to their children through genes humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
• Dominant and Recessive Traits genes have different versions
• Genetic Disorders changes or mutations leading to genetic disorders inherited - Down Syndrome, Cystic Fibrosis, Sickle Cell Anemia
• Prenatal Development baby develops inside the mother's womb from conception until birth, This period is divided into three main stages

Stages of prenatal development

• I. Germinal stage (0-2 weeks) fertilization and formation of zygote cell division and formation of blastocyst
• II. Embryonic stage (3-8 weeks) formation of major organs
• III. Fetal stage (9weeks to birth) Organs and systems continue to mature and become more complex.
• Sensory Development experiences contribute to brain development
• Movement Mother can may start to feel these movements
• The three stages of labor early labor - cervix to softens and thin out Active labor:Contractions become stronger Delivery :pushing with each contraction and help Afterbirth :to expel the placenta after birth

Newborn Reflexes

newborns rely entirely on caregivers provide essential nutrients, control warmth and provide security to help newborne adapt better

Physical Development

Patterns of muscular coordination Two trends: Cephalocaudal where the head develops first and Proximodistal where control over torso develop first before hands

Motor Development

Skills include: rolling over, sitting with no support to eventually walking independently

Cognitive Development

infants learn through senses and actions and have the ability to recognise

Breastfeeding

recommended providing nutrients that support infant health

Balanced Diet

supports growth , developments of the brain, strengthening bones and muscles

Key Characteristics

infants will trial and error learning method and devlop actions

Vision

the eye are drawn to focus on faces

Hearing

babies are born with the ability but strengthen when you call the mom's voice

Erik Ericson theory

in stages

• trust vs mistrust
• autonomy vs shame

Autonomy vs.Guilt

A child can not do somethings alone but in the presence of a teacher can complete it

Scaffoldings

Adults giving assistance and will gradully decrease once the task is familiar temporary support until the child understands

More knowledgeable other

someone with more knowledge teach or help the child

Scocial interaction

start from other before its internalited

Children langague

It helps when they talk to solve problem "Talking to myself helps me think!".

The Role of Culture

sensory and motor

Coginitive developmet

Compared

Types of Parenting Styles

• Authoritarian: low responsiveness, strict standards, expecting kids to obey.
• Authoritative: being responsive, supportive, set a structured home for their children.
• Permissive: low demands, giving independence to their children, non conventional and accepts behaviours
• Uninvolved: detached, low communication .

Types of Plat

• Unoccupied: birth to 3 months random movements
• Solitary play: birth to age 2 playing aone independently
• Onlooker: children watch other play
• Parallel: side by side with little interaction
• associative: children share with one another
• cooperative: play a structured enviroment

Games with rules

Board games

Effects of stress to children

conflict within the family, injury etc

Strategies a parent can do

make sure the home environment is safe and always listen to your child. current research show that early experiences have the ability to help brain function that can lead to a developed sense