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Questions and Answers
What does the azimuthal quantum number (l) indicate about an electron?
What does the azimuthal quantum number (l) indicate about an electron?
Which property is characteristic of metals?
Which property is characteristic of metals?
Which statement about the magnetic quantum number (ml) is true?
Which statement about the magnetic quantum number (ml) is true?
In terms of electronegativity (EN) difference, which type of bond is formed when the difference is greater than 2.0?
In terms of electronegativity (EN) difference, which type of bond is formed when the difference is greater than 2.0?
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What type of compounds do non-metals usually form?
What type of compounds do non-metals usually form?
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What is the molecular geometry when there are 3 bonding pairs and 0 lone pairs?
What is the molecular geometry when there are 3 bonding pairs and 0 lone pairs?
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Which molecular geometry corresponds to 2 bonding pairs and 1 lone pair?
Which molecular geometry corresponds to 2 bonding pairs and 1 lone pair?
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What molecular geometry is displayed when there are 4 bonding pairs and 0 lone pairs?
What molecular geometry is displayed when there are 4 bonding pairs and 0 lone pairs?
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When there are 2 bonding pairs and 2 lone pairs, which molecular geometry is observed?
When there are 2 bonding pairs and 2 lone pairs, which molecular geometry is observed?
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Which molecular geometry corresponds to 5 bonding pairs and 0 lone pairs?
Which molecular geometry corresponds to 5 bonding pairs and 0 lone pairs?
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What type of hybridization is associated with tetrahedral shape?
What type of hybridization is associated with tetrahedral shape?
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Which bond angles are characteristic of sp2 hybridization?
Which bond angles are characteristic of sp2 hybridization?
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Which compound would test positive with the Xanthoproteic test?
Which compound would test positive with the Xanthoproteic test?
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What is the process for producing hydrogen gas through the Lane and Messerschmidt process?
What is the process for producing hydrogen gas through the Lane and Messerschmidt process?
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What type of reaction does bromine in CCl4 indicate when testing for alkenes?
What type of reaction does bromine in CCl4 indicate when testing for alkenes?
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Which compound would yield a positive result in the Iodoform test?
Which compound would yield a positive result in the Iodoform test?
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What is the effect of electron-withdrawing groups (EWGs) on acidity?
What is the effect of electron-withdrawing groups (EWGs) on acidity?
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Which of the following elements produces a crimson red color in a flame test?
Which of the following elements produces a crimson red color in a flame test?
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What outcome is observed when primary amines are tested with the Hinsberg reagent?
What outcome is observed when primary amines are tested with the Hinsberg reagent?
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Which hybridization type corresponds to linear molecular geometry?
Which hybridization type corresponds to linear molecular geometry?
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What type of bonding is prevalent in sp hybridized compounds?
What type of bonding is prevalent in sp hybridized compounds?
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Which of the following tests indicates the presence of carbohydrates?
Which of the following tests indicates the presence of carbohydrates?
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What is the main characteristic of anti-aromatic compounds?
What is the main characteristic of anti-aromatic compounds?
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What effect do electron-donating groups (EDGs) have on acidity?
What effect do electron-donating groups (EDGs) have on acidity?
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Which form of phosphorus is commonly used in safety matches and fireworks?
Which form of phosphorus is commonly used in safety matches and fireworks?
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What is the primary use of bismuth subsalicylate?
What is the primary use of bismuth subsalicylate?
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What type of agent is hypophosphoric acid classified as?
What type of agent is hypophosphoric acid classified as?
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What is sodium hypochlorite commonly used for?
What is sodium hypochlorite commonly used for?
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Which compound is known as the 'King of all metals'?
Which compound is known as the 'King of all metals'?
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What is the primary use of copper sulfate in swimming pools?
What is the primary use of copper sulfate in swimming pools?
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Which halogen is known to be radioactive?
Which halogen is known to be radioactive?
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Which compound is used as a protective agent in dental procedures?
Which compound is used as a protective agent in dental procedures?
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What type of poisoning is treated with the antidote Penicillamine?
What type of poisoning is treated with the antidote Penicillamine?
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Which acid is known as 'oil of vitriol'?
Which acid is known as 'oil of vitriol'?
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Selenium sulfide is primarily used to treat which skin condition?
Selenium sulfide is primarily used to treat which skin condition?
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What is the primary purpose of using sodium fluoride?
What is the primary purpose of using sodium fluoride?
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Which metal is known for causing Itai-itai disease due to toxicity?
Which metal is known for causing Itai-itai disease due to toxicity?
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What is the main use of hydrochloric acid besides cleaning?
What is the main use of hydrochloric acid besides cleaning?
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What color does Cobaltous chloride appear when anhydrous?
What color does Cobaltous chloride appear when anhydrous?
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What is the primary use of Osmium tetroxide?
What is the primary use of Osmium tetroxide?
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Which element is known as the heaviest and densest metal?
Which element is known as the heaviest and densest metal?
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Which solution is used as an alkalinizing agent?
Which solution is used as an alkalinizing agent?
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What unique property does Mercury have among metals?
What unique property does Mercury have among metals?
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Which of the following elements is the lightest metal?
Which of the following elements is the lightest metal?
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What element is primarily used in catalytic converters for organic reactions?
What element is primarily used in catalytic converters for organic reactions?
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Which radioactive substance is used for liver imaging?
Which radioactive substance is used for liver imaging?
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Which of the following glass additives is used to mask the blue-green color of iron?
Which of the following glass additives is used to mask the blue-green color of iron?
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What is one of the primary functions of Sodium cobaltinitrite?
What is one of the primary functions of Sodium cobaltinitrite?
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Which of these elements is the most abundant trace element in humans?
Which of these elements is the most abundant trace element in humans?
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In which solution can you find a combination of NaCl, KCl, and Na lactate?
In which solution can you find a combination of NaCl, KCl, and Na lactate?
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What type of glass is characterized as highly resistant?
What type of glass is characterized as highly resistant?
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What element is used as a myocardial perfusion agent?
What element is used as a myocardial perfusion agent?
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Study Notes
Quantum Numbers
- Azimuthal or Angular Quantum Number (l) describes the shape of an electron's orbital and can have values from 0 to (n-1) where n is the principal quantum number.
- Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) describes the orientation of the orbital in space. It can have values from -l to 0 to +l.
- Spin Quantum Number (ms) describes the intrinsic angular momentum of an electron, which is quantized and has a spin up (+1/2) or spin down (-1/2).
Metals vs Non-metals
- Metals are shiny, malleable, good conductors of heat and electricity, usually form basic compounds, and prefer to be cations in aqueous solution.
- Non-metals lack luster, are brittle, poor conductors of heat and electricity, usually form acidic compounds, and prefer to be anions.
Polarity and Bonding
-
Electronegativity Difference determines bond polarity:
- 0.0-0.4: Non-polar
- 0.5-1.9: Polar
- 2.0 and above: Ionic
VSEPR Theory
- The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory predicts the shape of molecules based on the repulsion between electron pairs around the central atom.
- Number of Bonding Pairs and Number of Lone Pairs determines molecular geometry.
Hybridization
-
sp3 Hybridization involves the combination of one s and three p orbitals, forming four sp3 orbitals with a tetrahedral shape.
- Alkanes are examples of compounds with sp3 hybridization.
-
sp2 Hybridization involves the combination of one s and two p orbitals, forming three sp2 orbitals with a trigonal planar shape.
- Alkenes are examples of compounds with sp2 hybridization.
-
sp Hybridization involves the combination of one s and one p orbital, forming two sp orbitals with a linear shape.
- Alkynes are examples of compounds with sp hybridization.
Aromaticity
- Huckel's Rule states that a cyclic, planar molecule is aromatic if it has (4n + 2) pi electrons where n is an integer.
- Anti-aromatic molecules are cyclic, planar, and have 4n pi electrons.
- Non-aromatic molecules are either not cyclic, not planar, or don't follow Huckel's rule.
Organic Reactions
- Free Radical Substitution (SR): Characteristic of alkanes.
- Electrophilic Addition (AE): Characteristic of alkenes and alkynes.
- Electrophilic Substitution (SE): Aromatic compounds undergo this type of reaction.
- Nucleophilic Substitution (SN): Reactions with alkyl halides and alcohols.
- Nucleophilic Addition (AN): Reactions with carbonyl compounds.
- Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution (SNAcyl): Reactions involving carboxylic acids and derivatives.
- Redox Reactions: Occur with alcohols, carbonyl compounds, and carboxylic acids.
Organic Chemistry Tests
- Bromine Test (for Unsaturated Compounds): Alkenes react with bromine in CCl4, causing the orange color to disappear.
- Baeyer’s Test (for Unsaturated Compounds): Potassium permanganate reacts with alkenes, causing the violet color to disappear and forming a brown precipitate.
- Xanthoproteic Test (for Aromatics): Nitric acid reacts with aromatic compounds, producing a yellow color.
- Beilstein Test (for Halogenated Compounds): A copper wire with a sample of an alkyl halide burns with a green flame.
- Lucas Test (for Alcohols): Zinc chloride in HCl reacts with alcohols, forming a cloudy solution. The speed of the reaction distinguishes between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols.
- Ferric Chloride Test (for Phenols): FeCl3 reacts with phenols, producing a blue or purple color.
- Jones Oxidation (for Aldehydes, Alcohols, and Other Reducing Compounds): Chromic acid in sulfuric acid reacts with aldehydes, alcohols, and other reducing compounds, producing a green color.
- Tollen’s Test (for Aldehydes and Other Reducing Compounds): Ammoniacal silver nitrate reacts with aldehydes, forming a silver mirror.
- Fehling’s Test (for Aldehydes and Other Reducing Compounds): Fehling's A (cupric sulfate) reacts with aldehydes, forming a red precipitate.
- Brady’s Test (for Aldehydes and Ketones): 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine reacts with aldehydes and ketones, producing a red precipitate.
- Iodoform Test (for Methyl Ketones Only): Alkaline iodine solution reacts with methyl ketones, producing a pale yellow precipitate.
- Hinsberg Test (for Amines): Benzenesulfonyl chloride reacts with amines, producing a precipitate. The solubility of the precipitate in dilute HCl distinguishes between primary, secondary, and tertiary amines.
Miscellaneous Chemistry
-
Dobereiner's Triads are groups of three elements with similar chemical properties.
- Lithium, Sodium, Potassium (Group 1)
- Calcium, Strontium, Barium (Group 2)
- Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine (Group 17)
- Sulfur, Selenium, Tellurium (Group 16)
Chemical Processes
- Lane and Messerschmidt Process: Used to produce hydrogen.
- Haber’s Process: Used to produce ammonia.
- Solvay Process: Used to produce sodium bicarbonate.
- Dow Process: Used to produce magnesium.
- Haber-Bosch Process: Another process used to produce ammonia.
- FraSch Process: Used to extract sulfur underground.
- Hall-Heroult/Alcoa Chlorine Process: Used to produce aluminum.
- Linde-Frankl Process: Used to produce oxygen.
- Welsbach Process: Used to produce ozone (O3).
- Guggenheim Process: Used to produce sodium nitrite.
- Ostwald Process: Used to produce nitric acid.
- Fractional Distillation of Liquid Air: Used to produce nitrogen.
Storage of Chemicals
- Sodium: Stored in black cylinders.
- Hydrogen: Stored in red cylinders.
- Carbon: Gray cylinders
- Nitrogen: Black cylinders
- Nitrous Oxide: Blue cylinders
- Oxygen: Green cylinders
- Helium: Brown cylinders
- Magnesium Hydroxide: Blue bottles
- Argon: Dark green cylinders
- Acetylene: Maroon cylinders
- Chlorine: Yellow cylinders
- Lithium: Coated with petroleum or stored under oil
- White/Yellow Phosphorus: Stored underwater
Flame Tests
- Flame Tests are used to identify elements based on the color they emit when heated in a flame.
- Sr: Crimson red.
- Ca: Brick red
- Li: Carmine red
- Na: Golden yellow
- Ba: Yellow green
- B: Green
- Cu: Emerald green
- K: Crimson (observed through cobalt glass)
- Ba: Bluish green (observed through cobalt glass)
- Lithium: Purple (observed through cobalt glass)
- As, Sb, Bi, Pb: Yellow
Common Chemicals and Uses
- Hydrogen: The lightest and most abundant element. Used in fuel cells and ammonia production.
- Water (Hydrogen Oxide): The most abundant compound on Earth. Essential for life.
- Deuterium Oxide (Heavy Water): Used in research studies of metabolism.
- Hydrogen Peroxide: A potent oxidizer and antiseptic. -Lithium Carbonate: Used in the treatment of bipolar disorder and as a sodium antagonist.
- Sodium/Natrium: The primary extracellular cation in the body. Also used to precipitate sodium.
- Sodium Chloride: Table salt, used as an electrolyte replenisher.
- Sodium Bicarbonate: Baking soda, used as a systemic alkalinizer and an antidote for aspirin overdose.
- Sodium Carbonate: Washing soda (decahydrate) and soda ash (anhydrous).
- Sodium Citrate: Used as an anticoagulant by chelating calcium and as a sequestering agent in Benedict’s solution.
- Sodium Sulfate: Glauber’s salt, used as a laxative.
- Sodium Potassium Tartrate: Rochelle’s salt. Used for copper sequestration in Fehling’s agent.
- Sodium Tartrate: Primary standard in Karl-Fischer agent.
- Sodium Nitrate: Chile saltpeter, used as a meat preservative. -Sodium Nitrite & Sodium Thiosulfate: Used as an antidote for cyanide poisoning. -Sodium Thiocyanate: Water-soluble compound formed upon dissociation of cyanmethemoglobin. -Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate (Kayexalate): Cation exchange resin used for hyperkalemia.
- Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda, Soda Lye: Deliquescent (absorbs water and liquefies). Used as a saponifying agent and draining cleaner.
- Sodium Hydroxide + Calcium Oxide (Soda Lime): CO2 absorber in anesthesia machines.
- Sodium Bisulfite & Metabisulfite: Antioxidant used as a preservative.
- Monosodium Glutamate: Umami flavor enhancer known to cause “Chinese restaurant syndrome” due to excessive intake.
Phosphorus
- White/Yellow phosphorus is poisonous
- Black phosphorus is stable in air and has a graphite-like stucture
- Red phosphorus is used in safety matches and fireworks
- Phosphoric acid can be used as a buffering agent
- Hypophosphoric acid can be used as a reducing agent/antioxidant
Arsenic
- Arsenic has several applications in agriculture
- Lewisite is an arsenical war gas and its antidote is BAL
- Scheele's Green is cupric hydrogen arsenite
- Paris Green is cupric acetoarsenite
- Fowler's Solution is a potassium arsenite solution; formerly used for leukemia
- Donovan's Solution is composed of arsenic and mercuric iodides, formerly used for dermatologic uses
Antimony
- Antimony Potassium Tartrate is also known as Tartar Emetic.
- Tartar Emetic was formerly used for schistosomiasis and leishmaniasis
- Sodium Stibogluconate is a more modern treatment for schistosomiasis and leishmaniasis
Bismuth
- Bismuth is a byproduct of lead refining
- Bismuth is a component of Rose metal
- Bismuth Subsalicylate, also known as Pink Bismuth, is the active ingredient in Pepto-Bismol
- Bismuth Subsalicylate is anti-inflammatory , bactericidal, and antacid
Oxygen
- Also known as dephlogisticated air and empyreal air
- Used for gas poisoning in patients with dyspnea
Hydrogen Peroxide
- Also known as Agua Oxigenada and Oxygenated acid
- It is an antiseptic
Sulfur
- Also known as Brimstone
- Precipitated Sulfur is also known as Lac Sulfur and Milk of Sulfur
- Precipitated Sulfur is used as a scabicide
- Sublimed Sulfur is also known as Flower of Sulfur
- Sublimed Sulfur is a component of Vleminck's Solution, used for scabies and acne
- Sulfurated Sulfur is also known as Liver of Sulfur
- Sulfurated Sulfur results from combining sublimed sulfur with potassium carbonate
- Sulfurated Sulfur is part of White Lotion
- Sulfur Dioxide has reducing property, antioxidant
- Sulfuric Acid is also known as Oil of Vitriol
- Sulfuric Acid is a sulfonating and dehydrating agent
Selenium
- Selenium Sulfide is the active ingredient in Selsun Blue
- Selsun Blue is used to treat seborrheic dermatitis
Fluorine
- Sodium Fluoride is used to prevent dental caries and treat osteoporosis
- Stannous Fluoride is also used in dental products
Chlorine
- Chlorine is a greenish gas
- Sodium Hypochlorite is used as bleach, such as Zonrox brand
- Dakin's Solution contains 4-6% Sodium Hypochlorite
- Labarraque's Solution contains 2.5% Sodium Hypochlorite
- Hydrochloric acid is used as a cleaning agent in its concentrated form, known as muriatic acid
- Diluted Hydrochloric acid was formerly used for achlorhydria
- Bromine is a reddish-brown liquid
- Bromine is a CNS depressant and a common reagent for testing alkenes and condensed tannins
Iodine
- Iodine is a dark-violet metallic solid
- Iodine toxicity is known as Iodism; its antidote is Starch
- Potassium Iodine Saturated solution is used for fungal infections, such as Sporotrichosis
- Iodophors are products that contain iodine, such as Povidone-Iodine
- Potassium Mercuric Iodide is Nessler's Reagent and can be used to test for the presence of ammonia
Helium
- Helium is used in fluorescent lights and lasers
Neon
- Neon is the most abundant noble gas and can be used as a substitute for nitrogen
Krypton
- Krypton is the least abundant noble gas
Xenon
- Xenon is used in research as a potential general anesthetic
Radon
- Radon is proposed as an anticancer agent and used in earthquake detection
Copper
- Copper toxicity is known as Wilson's disease
- Copper's antidote is Penicillamine
- Copper Sulfate is also known as Blue Vitriol, Roman Vitriol and Salzburg Vitriol
- Copper Sulfate is a component of Benedict's Solution and Barfoed's Solution
- Bordeaux Mixture is composed of Copper Sulfate and Calcium Oxide, used as an algicide and fungicide in swimming pools
Silver
- Silver has oligodynamic action, meaning small amounts of silver can kill bacteria.
- Silver Nitrate was formerly used to treat glaucoma and ophthalmia neonatorum
- Silver Nitrate is the active ingredient in Tollen's Reagent, which differentiates aldehydes by forming a silver mirror
- Silver Nitrate is used in the form of AgNO3 pencils, also known as Lunar Caustic, to remove warts
- Ammoniacal Silver Nitrate, also known as Howe's Solution, is used as a protectant for teeth
Gold
- Gold is known as the King of all metals and is highly malleable
- Gold dissolves in Aqua Regia, which is composed of 3 parts Hydrochloric Acid and 1 part Nitric Acid
- Gold also dissolves in Selenic Acid
- Auranofin is a gold-based medication for treating rheumatoid arthritis
- Aurothioglucose is injected intramuscularly
- Gold Sodium Thiomalate is injected intramuscularly
Zinc
- Zinc is present in insulin and is the 2nd most abundant trace element in humans
- Zinc Sulfate is used in White Lotion, along with sulfurated potash, as an astringent and protectant
- Zinc Oxide is another name for Zinc White or Philosopher's Wool
- Zinc Oxide is a physical sunblock
- Lassar's Paste is a topical antiseptic and protectant that contains zinc oxide
- Calamine Lotion is a mix of calamine and zinc oxide; Calmoseptin is a brand name for this lotion
- Excessive exposure to zinc fumes can cause Metal Fume Fever
- Zinc deficiencies can lead to parakeratosis
- Zinc is involved in Rinmann's Green, which is a mixture of zinc and sodium cobaltinitrite
Cadmium
- Cadmium is a component of older batteries
- Cadmium toxicity can lead to Itai-Itai Disease, which results in renal insufficiency and painful bones due to osteomalacia
- Cadmium's antidote is BAL
- Cadmium Sulfide is known as Yellow Sulfide
- Cadmium Sulfide was previously thought to be Vitamin B12
- Cadmium Sulfide is involved in the Vogel Reaction
Cobalt
- Cobaltous Chloride is known as Lover's Ink or Sympathetic Ink
- Cobaltous Chloride can be blue when anhydrous and pink when hydrated
- Sodium Cobaltinitrite can be used to test for the presence of:
- Aluminum, causing Thenard's Blue
- Zinc, causing Rinmann's Green
- Potassium, causing a yellow precipitate
Nickel
- Nickel is known as "Old Nick's Copper"
- Nickel is used in Ni-Cd batteries, fancy jewelry and coins
- Nickel is tested with Dimethylglyoxime, which causes a red solution
Rhodium
- Rhodium is used as a catalyst for organic reactions
Ruthenium
- Ruthenium is also used as a catalyst for organic reactions
Palladium
- Palladium is also used as a catalyst for organic reactions
Osmium
- Osmium is the heaviest and densest metal, with a density of 22.59 g/cc
- Osmium Tetroxide is used to stain specimens for electron microscopy and can be used for the asymmetric hydroxylation of alkanes
Iridium
- Iridium is used as a catalyst for organic reactions
Platinum
- Platinum is used as a catalyst for organic reactions
- Platinum is also used in alkylating antineoplastic drugs such as cisplatin, carboplatin, and oxaliplatin
Elements
- Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe and the lightest element
- Lithium is the lightest metal
- Argon is the most abundant noble gas
- Krypton is the least abundant noble gas
- Zinc is present in insulin and is the 2nd most abundant trace element in humans
- Mercury is the only metal that exists as a liquid at room temperature
- Tungsten has the highest melting point of all elements
- Technetium is the first artificially produced element
- Iron is the most abundant trace element in humans
- Osmium is the heaviest and densest metal, with a density of 22.59 g/cc
Solutions
- Ringer's Solution contains: Sodium Chloride, Potassium Chloride, and Calcium Chloride
- Ringer's Solution can cause acidosis
- Lactated Ringer's Solution contains the same components as Ringer's Solution, but also contains sodium lactate which is also known as Hartmann's Solution
- Lactated Ringer's Solution is used as an alkalinizing agent
- Darrow's Solution contains Sodium Chloride, Potassium Chloride, and Sodium Lactate
Glass
- Type I glass is highly resistant borosilicate glass
- Type II glass is treated soda-lime glass
- Type III glass is soda-lime glass
- Type IV/N glass is general purpose, non-parenteral glass
Glass Additives
- Manganese Oxide masks the bluish-green color of iron impurities
- Borates reduce the coefficient of expansion
- Potassium imparts an amber color
- Lead increases refractive index
- Rare Earths can polarize and absorb light at certain wavelengths
- Selenium can impart a red color
- Hydrofluoric Acid is used in glass etching
Radioactives
- Technetium 99m Imino Diacetic Acid (IDA) is used for hepatobiliary studies
- Technetium 99m Phytate is used for Liver imaging, specifically potency studies
- Gold 198 is used for liver scanning
- Iodine 131 Rose Bengal is used as a tracer for liver function
- Sodium Iodohippurate is used to diagnose liver function
- Technetium 99m Heptagluconate is used for kidney imaging and determining renal function
- Mercury 197 Chlormerodrin is used for kidney and brain scintillation scanning
- Technetium 99m Sestamibi/Methoxyisobutyl Isonitrile is used as a myocardial perfusion agent
- Iodine 131 Sodium Iodide is used to determine Cardiac Output and blood plasma volume
- Technetium 99m Pertechnetate is used for thyroid scanning
- Iodine 125 Sodium Iodide is used to assess thyroid function
- Technetium 99m Etidronate/Phosphonates is used for bone imaging
- Technetium 99m Macroaggregated Albumin is used for lung scanning
- Chromium 51 is used for spleen imaging and red blood cell mass determination
- Phosphorus 32 is used to treat polycythemia vera
- Cobalt 57 Cyanocobalamin is used for diagnosis
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Test your knowledge on quantum numbers, molecular geometry, and properties of metals in this chemistry quiz. Answer questions related to azimuthal and magnetic quantum numbers, as well as bonding types and molecular shapes. Perfect for students looking to strengthen their understanding of chemical bonding and molecular structure.