Chemistry Class: Pure Substances and Mixtures
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Chemistry Class: Pure Substances and Mixtures

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Questions and Answers

What does the term 'concentrated' refer to in a mixture?

  • A solution with a relatively large quantity of solute (correct)
  • A solution containing more solvent than solute
  • A solution that cannot dissolve any more solute
  • A solution with a higher volume of solute than solvent

    • Which of the following describes a supersaturated solution?

  • Contains more solute than it should at a given temperature and pressure (correct)
  • Moves toward equilibrium through undissolved solute
  • Is a saturated solution with extra solvent added
  • Contains the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve at a given temperature

    • What characteristic defines a pure substance?

  • It is composed of only one kind of particle. (correct)
  • It contains multiple types of particles.
  • It is always a solid at room temperature.
  • It can vary in composition.

    • What is the primary role of acids in a chemical reaction?

    <p>Donate protons to other substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes an element?

    <p>A substance that cannot be decomposed by ordinary chemical processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes a mixture where components are unevenly distributed?

    <p>Heterogeneous mixture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which property is characteristic of weak acids?

    <p>Partially dissociates in solution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the term 'solubility'?

    <p>The degree to which a substance dissolves in a solvent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary feature of gases compared to liquids and solids?

    <p>Gases have variable volume and shape.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines cations in relation to ions?

    <p>Cations are positively charged ions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of a pH buffer?

    <p>To prevent large variations in pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant distinction between strong and weak acids?

    <p>Strong acids completely dissociate while weak acids do not</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the atomic number?

    <p>It equals the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following ions indicates alkalinity in a solution?

    <p>OH- ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about electronegativity is true?

    <p>It describes the attraction of an atom to electrons when forming a bond.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does a solute play in a solution?

    <p>It is the substance that is dissolved.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which acid is classified as a strong acid found in laboratories?

    <p>Sulfuric acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does total acidity express in a solution?

    <p>The measure based on neutralization of H+ ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An element can be decomposed into simpler substances by ordinary chemical processes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A heterogeneous mixture exhibits uniform composition throughout.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The mass number of an element is the sum of its protons and electrons.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electronegativity refers to an atom's ability to accept electrons when forming a bond.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cations are negatively charged ions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A gas possesses a fixed volume and shape.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The valence shell is the outermost energy level of an atom.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Isotopes are atoms with different numbers of protons but the same number of neutrons.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A substance is considered soluble if it cannot dissolve in a solvent.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A concentrated solution contains a large quantity of solute in comparison to the amount of solvent.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neutralization reactions involve the reaction of a base and water to produce an acid.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Strong acids and bases partially dissociate in solution.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pH scale is used to express the concentration of OH- ions in a solution.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A supersaturated solution contains less solute than it should at a given temperature and pressure.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Buffers help to prevent large variations in pH when acids or bases are added.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The properties of bases include a sour taste and the ability to turn litmus paper red.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide are commonly measured components of alkalinity.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Acids do not typically react with bases to form water and salts.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following common acids with their chemical formulas:

    <p>Hydrochloric acid = HCl Sulfuric acid = H2SO4 Nitric acid = HNO3 Acetic acid = CH3COOH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the terms with their definitions:

    <p>Molarity = Moles of a solute per liters of a solution Solubility = Degree to which a substance dissolves in a solvent Dissociation = Splitting of a substance into ions in a solution Neutralization reaction = Reaction between an acid and a base to form water and a salt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following bases with their characteristics:

    <p>Sodium hydroxide = Strong base Potassium hydroxide = Strong base Sodium bicarbonate = Strong base Ammonia = Weak base</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the properties with acids or bases:

    <p>Sour taste = Acids Feels slippery = Bases Turns litmus paper red = Acids Tastes bitter = Bases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following solutions with their definitions:

    <p>Saturated solution = Max amount of solute that can dissolve Supersaturated solution = Contains more solute than it should Dilute solution = Relatively small quantity of solute Concentrated solution = Relatively large quantity of solute</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms related to pH with their meanings:

    <p>pH = Potential H+ ions in a solution Acidity = Concentration of H+ ions Alkalinity = Concentration of OH- ions pOH = Logarithmic scale for OH- concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following acids with their common names:

    <p>Nitric acid = Aqua regia when mixed with hydrochloric acid Hydrochloric acid = Muriatic acid Sulfuric acid = Battery acid Acetic acid = Vinegar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following ions with their respective roles:

    <p>H+ = Acidic ion OH- = Basic ion CO3-2 = Common component of alkalinity HCO3- = Also known as hydrogen carbonate ion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following states of acidity with their measurement methods:

    <p>Total acidity = Titrating a base into a solution Hot acidity = Using hot peroxide treatment method pH = Logarithmic scale representation Net alkalinity = Excess alkalinity to neutralize the sample</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the processes with their descriptions:

    <p>Dissolve = Cause a substance to break apart Dissociation = Substance splits into ions Neutralization = Combining an acid and a base Concentration = Measurement of particles in a mixture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Element = Substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances Compound = Substance composed of identical molecules of two or more elements Mixture = Combination of two or more substances that are not chemically combined Homogeneous mixture = Components are evenly distributed, appearing as a single phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following states of matter with their characteristics:

    <p>Solid = Incompressible, fixed volume and shape Liquid = Incompressible, fixed volume but variable shape Gas = Compressible, variable volume and shape Plasma = High energy state with electrically charged particles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of ions with their charges:

    <p>Cation = Positively charged ion Anion = Negatively charged ion Neutral atom = No charge Radical = Ion with unpaired electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their descriptions related to atomic structure:

    <p>Atomic number = Number of protons in the nucleus Atomic mass = Weighted average of all isotopes of an element Mass number = Sum of protons and neutrons in the most common isotope Isotope = Atoms with same number of protons but different neutrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following properties of electrons with their significance:

    <p>Valence electrons = Electrons in the outermost energy level Ionization energy = Energy required to remove an electron from an atom Electron affinity = Ability of an atom to accept an electron Electronegativity = Tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of mixtures with their characteristics:

    <p>Homogeneous mixture = Uniform composition throughout Heterogeneous mixture = Non-uniform composition throughout Solute = Substance dissolved in a solution Solvent = Substance in which solute dissolves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following scientific terms with their meanings:

    <p>Octet Rule = Tendency of electrons to arrange in 2-8-8 structure Valence shell = Outermost energy level of an atom Mass number = Total number of protons and neutrons Electronegativity = Atom's ability to attract electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following definitions with their related concepts about solutions:

    <p>Solute = Substance that is dissolved in a solution Solvent = Substance that dissolves the solute Solution = Homogeneous mixture of two or more substances Concentration = Amount of solute in a given volume of solution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A pure substance consists of only one kind of ______ with a fixed structure.

    <p>particle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A solution that contains the maximum amount of solute that can ______ in a solvent is called a saturated solution.

    <p>dissolve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A ______ is any substance composed of identical molecules consisting of atoms of two or more chemical elements.

    <p>compound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a ______ mixture, the components are evenly distributed throughout.

    <p>homogeneous</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ scale is a logarithmic scale used to represent the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

    <p>pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A ______ is any atom or group of atoms that bears one or more positive or negative electrical charges.

    <p>ion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Substances that accept protons are referred to as ______.

    <p>bases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ Rule describes the tendency of electrons to arrange in a 2-8-8 manner around the atomic nucleus.

    <p>Octet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A weak acid will ______ only partially in solution.

    <p>dissociate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The average distance between the center of an atom's nucleus and its outermost electron shell is called the atomic ______.

    <p>radius</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The concentration of ______ ions in a solution is referred to as acidity.

    <p>H+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Common bases such as sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are classified as ______ bases.

    <p>strong</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract ______ when forming a chemical bond.

    <p>electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A ______ solution contains more solute than it normally should at a given temperature and pressure.

    <p>supersaturated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A ______ is a substance, ordinarily a liquid, in which other materials dissolve to form a solution.

    <p>solvent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ of hydroxide ions indicates the alkalinity of a solution.

    <p>concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Acids can often change the color of litmus paper to ______.

    <p>red</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Buffers are special solutions that help maintain a stable ______ in a solution.

    <p>pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the defining characteristic of a homogeneous mixture?

    <p>The components are evenly distributed throughout.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes a compound?

    <p>A compound consists of identical molecules of multiple elements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What charge do cations carry?

    <p>They are positively charged.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the atomic mass represent?

    <p>The weighted average of all isotopes of an element.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do valence electrons determine in an atom?

    <p>The chemical reactivity of the atom.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes an ion?

    <p>An atom or group of atoms that bears a charge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is ionization energy defined?

    <p>The energy required to remove an electron from an atom.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary feature of a solid?

    <p>It has a fixed volume and shape.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the process of a substance splitting into ions in a solution?

    <p>Dissociation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a saturated solution contain?

    <p>The maximum amount of solute that can dissolve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of strong acids in solution?

    <p>They completely dissociate into ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes an alkaline solution?

    <p>Exhibits a high concentration of OH- ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly defines molarity?

    <p>The moles of solute per liters of solution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of a neutralization reaction?

    <p>Producing a salt and water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following properties is associated with bases?

    <p>Feels slippery to the touch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used to describe the maximum quantity of solute that can dissolve in a given volume of solvent?

    <p>Solubility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of a buffer solution?

    <p>To prevent large changes in pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following ions indicates acidity in a solution?

    <p>H+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A pure substance is made of two or more kinds of particles.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An ion can be a group of atoms that carries a positive or negative charge.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All elements can be decomposed into simpler substances by ordinary chemical processes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A gas is incompressible and has a fixed shape.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cations are negatively charged ions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electronegativity refers to an atom's ability to attract electrons when forming a bond.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition throughout.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The mass number equals the number of protons and electrons in an element.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A supersaturated solution contains more solute than it should at a given temperature and pressure.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Strong acids and bases completely dissociate in solution.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A substance is considered insoluble if it dissolves completely in a solvent.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pH scale and the pOH scale work the same way to measure the concentration of ions in a solution.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Acids typically have a bitter taste.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Dissociation refers to the process of a substance splitting into ions in a solution.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Buffer pH refers to the measurement of the total acidity in a solution.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Alkalinity indicates the concentration of H+ ions in a solution.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neutralization reactions occur when an acid reacts with a base to produce water and a salt.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Common acids found in labs include hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and acetic acid.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes a compound from an element?

    <p>A compound consists of molecules made up of two or more different elements, while an element cannot be decomposed into simpler substances.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define the term 'homogeneous mixture' and give an example.

    <p>A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition throughout, such as saltwater.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the octet rule and why is it important?

    <p>The octet rule states that atoms tend to arrange their electrons in a configuration of 2-8-8 in their outermost shell, promoting chemical stability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do cations differ from anions?

    <p>Cations are positively charged ions, while anions are negatively charged ions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of atomic mass and how is it calculated?

    <p>Atomic mass is the weighted average of an element’s isotopes, reflecting the proportion of each isotope.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the difference between a solid and a liquid.

    <p>A solid has a fixed shape and volume, while a liquid has a fixed volume but takes the shape of its container.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does it mean when we say that a substance has a high electronegativity?

    <p>High electronegativity indicates an atom's strong ability to attract electrons when forming a chemical bond.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define 'ionization energy' and its significance in chemistry.

    <p>Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an isolated atom, indicating how strongly an atom holds onto its electrons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between a saturated solution and a supersaturated solution?

    <p>A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve, while a supersaturated solution contains more solute than it should under given conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Can you explain what molarity measures in a solution?

    <p>Molarity measures the moles of solute per liter of solution.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe what happens during dissociation in a solution.

    <p>Dissociation is the process where a substance splits into ions when dissolved in a solvent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a substance as soluble?

    <p>A substance is soluble if it dissolves in a specific solvent to form a solution.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What property do bases generally exhibit in terms of taste and texture?

    <p>Bases taste bitter and feel slippery.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of an acid in a neutralization reaction?

    <p>In a neutralization reaction, an acid acts as a proton donor to react with a base.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What measurement does the pH scale represent?

    <p>The pH scale represents the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is total acidity and how is it measured?

    <p>Total acidity is the overall concentration of H+ ions in a solution, measured by titrating a base to neutralize the acid.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    List the common components of alkalinity that are measured.

    <p>The common components of alkalinity are carbonate (CO3-2), bicarbonate (HCO3-), and hydroxide (OH-).</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a pH buffer and its purpose in a solution?

    <p>A pH buffer is a solution that resists changes in pH when acids or bases are added.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Pure Substances and Mixtures

    • A pure substance is made up of only one type of particle with a consistent structure.
    • Elements are substances not breakable into simpler substances through standard chemical methods.
    • Compounds are substances composed of identical molecules formed from atoms of two or more elements.
    • Mixtures consist of two or more substances that are not chemically combined.
    • Homogeneous mixtures have evenly distributed components, leading to a consistent composition throughout.
    • Heterogeneous mixtures lack uniform composition, resulting in uneven distribution of components.

    States of Matter

    • Solids are incompressible, with fixed volume and shape.
    • Liquids are incompressible with a fixed volume but a variable shape.
    • Gases are compressible and have variable volume and shape.

    Atomic Structure

    • Protons are positively charged and reside in the atomic nucleus.
    • Neutrons are neutral particles also found in the nucleus.
    • Electrons are negatively charged particles arranged in energy levels around the nucleus.
    • AMU (Atomic Mass Unit) is a unit used to express the relative mass of atoms and subatomic particles.

    The Octet Rule and Valence Electrons

    • The Octet Rule describes the tendency of elements to achieve a stable electron configuration with eight electrons in their outermost energy level (except for hydrogen and helium).
    • The outermost energy level is called the valence shell.
    • Valence electrons are electrons located in the outermost energy level.

    Ions and Atomic Properties

    • An ion is an atom or group of atoms with a positive or negative electrical charge.
    • Cations are positively charged ions.
    • Anions are negatively charged ions.
    • Atomic number represents the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom.
    • Atomic mass is the weighted average of all isotopes of an element.
    • Mass number represents the sum of protons and neutrons in an element’s most common isotope.
    • Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but differing numbers of neutrons.
    • Electronegativity refers to an atom's tendency to attract electrons when forming a chemical bond.
    • Atomic radius is the average distance between an atom's nucleus and its outermost electron shell.
    • Ionization energy signifies the energy needed to remove an electron from an isolated atom or molecule.
    • Electron affinity measures an atom's ability to accept an electron.

    Solutions and Concentration

    • A solute is the substance dissolved in a solution.
    • A solvent is the substance, usually a liquid, that dissolves the solute.
    • A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
    • "Dissolve" means to cause a substance to break apart and mix evenly into another substance.
    • A dilute solution contains a relatively small amount of solute compared to the solvent.
    • A concentrated solution has a relatively large quantity of solute present in a given amount of mixture.
    • Concentration refers to the measurement of the number of particles present in a specific volume, typically in a mixture or solution.
    • A saturated solution is a solution with the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
    • A supersaturated solution contains more solute than it should at a specific temperature and pressure.

    Molarity, Solubility, and pH

    • Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
    • Solubility describes the degree to which a substance dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
    • A soluble substance dissolves in specific fluids.
    • An insoluble substance is incapable of dissolving in a solvent.
    • pH represents the potential of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.
    • The pH scale is a logarithmic scale used to express the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.

    Acids and Bases

    • Acids are proton donors, which means they release hydrogen ions (H+) in solution.
    • Bases are proton acceptors, which means they accept hydrogen ions (H+).
    • Common properties of Acids:
      • Can dissolve metals.
      • Have a sour taste.
      • React with bases to form water and a salt.
      • Turn litmus paper red.
    • Common properties of Bases:
      • Feel slippery
      • Taste bitter
      • React with acids to form water and a salt
      • Turn litmus paper blue

    Dissociation and Neutralization

    • Dissociation is the process where a substance splits into ions when dissolved in a solution.
    • Strong acids and bases completely dissociate in solution, while weak acids and bases do not.
    • A neutralization reaction is when an acid and a base react to form water and a salt.

    Common Acids and Bases

    • Common Acids in Labs:
      • Hydrochloric acid (commercial name: muriatic acid) - HCl - strong acid
      • Sulfuric acid - H2SO4 - strong acid
      • Nitric acid - HNO3 - strong acid
      • Acetic acid (in vinegar) - CH3COOH - weak acid
    • Common Bases in Labs:
      • Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda, lye) - NaOH - strong base
      • Potassium hydroxide - KOH - strong base
      • Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) - NaHCO3 - strong base
      • Ammonia - NH3 - weak base

    Acidity, Alkalinity, and Buffering

    • Acidity refers to the concentration of H+ ions (H3O+).
    • Total acidity, also known as titratable acidity, is measured by neutralizing all H+ ions in a solution with a base. It provides better insight into the acid's impact compared to pH.
    • Hot acidity is determined using the hot peroxide treatment method to assess the potential for pH to decrease to acidic values after the oxidation of iron and manganese in a solution.
    • Net alkalinity refers to the excess alkalinity or the amount needed to neutralize a sample.
    • Alkalinity represents the concentration of OH- ions.
    • The pOH scale functions similarly to the pH scale, but it is not commonly used.
    • Three key components of alkalinity are:
      • Carbonate (CO3-2)
      • Bicarbonate (HCO3-) also known as hydrogen carbonate ion
      • Hydroxide (OH-)
    • pH buffers are special solutions that prevent significant changes in pH. They enhance the amount of acid or base that can be added before substantial pH alteration occurs.
    • Buffer pH in soil pertains to the measurement of reserve acidity or the amount of limestone needed to increase soil pH.
    • Comparing pH with buffer pH helps determine the amount of limestone to be added.

    Matter

    • A pure substance is composed of only one type of particle with a fixed structure.
    • An element cannot be broken down into simpler substances through ordinary chemical processes.
    • A compound is made of identical molecules containing atoms from two or more elements.
    • Mixtures contain multiple substances not chemically combined.
    • A homogeneous mixture has components evenly distributed, appearing uniform throughout.
    • A heterogeneous mixture has non-uniform composition.

    States of Matter

    • Solids are incompressible, maintain a fixed volume and shape.
    • Liquids are incompressible, have a fixed volume, but a variable shape.
    • Gases are compressible, with variable volume and shape.

    Atomic Structure

    • Protons are positively charged particles located in the atomic nucleus.
    • Neutrons are neutral particles within the atomic nucleus.
    • Electrons are negatively charged particles arranged in energy levels surrounding the nucleus.
    • AMU stands for atomic mass unit.
    • The Octet Rule describes the tendency of electrons to arrange themselves in a 2-8-8 pattern around the nucleus.
    • The valence shell is the outermost energy level of an atom.
    • Valence electrons reside in the outermost energy level.

    Ions

    • An ion is an atom or group of atoms carrying a positive or negative charge.
    • Cations are positively charged ions.
    • Anions are negatively charged ions.

    Atomic Properties

    • The atomic number represents the number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
    • Atomic mass is the weighted average of all isotopes of an element.
    • The mass number represents the sum of protons and neutrons in an element's most common isotope.
    • Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
    • Electronegativity is an atom's tendency to attract electrons during bond formation.
    • Atomic radius is the average distance between an atom's nucleus and outermost electron shell.
    • Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from an isolated atom or molecule.
    • Electron affinity describes an atom's ability to accept an electron.

    Solutions

    • A solute is the substance dissolved in a solution.
    • A solvent is the substance, usually a liquid, that dissolves the solute.
    • A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
    • "Dissolve" means to break down and mix evenly into another substance.
    • A dilute solution has a relatively small amount of solute compared to solvent.
    • A concentrated solution contains a large amount of substance per unit volume.
    • Concentration measures the number of particles present in a volume, mainly in mixtures or solutions.
    • A saturated solution holds the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given solvent.
    • A supersaturated solution contains more solute than it should at a given temperature and pressure.
    • Molarity measures the moles of solute per liter of solution.
    • Solubility is the degree to which a substance dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
    • A soluble substance dissolves in certain fluids.
    • An insoluble substance cannot dissolve in a given solvent.

    pH and Acidity

    • pH represents the potential hydrogen ion (H+ or H3O+) concentration in a solution.
    • The pH scale is logarithmic, representing hydrogen ion concentration.
    • Acids are proton donors.
    • Bases are proton acceptors.

    Properties of Acids and Bases

    Acids:

    • Dissolve metals.
    • Taste sour.
    • React with bases to form water and salt.
    • Turn litmus paper red.

    Bases:

    • Feel slippery.
    • Taste bitter.
    • React with acids to form water and salt.
    • Turn litmus paper blue.

    Dissociation

    • Dissociation is the process where a substance splits into ions in a solution.
    • Strong acids and bases completely dissociate in solution, while weak ones do not.
    • A neutralization reaction occurs when an acid and base react to form water and salt.

    Common Acids and Bases in Laboratories

    Common Acids:

    • Hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid): HCl (strong acid)
    • Sulfuric acid: H2SO4 (strong acid)
    • Nitric acid: HNO3 (strong acid)
    • Acetic acid (in vinegar): CH3COOH (weak acid)

    Common Bases:

    • Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda, lye): NaOH (strong base)
    • Potassium hydroxide: KOH (strong base)
    • Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda): NaHCO3 (strong base)
    • Ammonia: NH3 (weak base)

    Acidity and Alkalinity

    • Acidity refers to the concentration of H+ ions (H3O+).
    • Total acidity (titratable acidity) is determined by titrating a base into a solution until all H+ ions neutralize.
    • Hot acidity is determined using hot peroxide treatment to measure net acidity or net alkalinity.
    • Net alkalinity is the excess alkalinity or the amount needed to neutralize the sample.
    • Alkalinity is the concentration of OH- ions.
    • There is a pOH scale similar to the pH scale, but it is not commonly used.

    Components of Alkalinity

    • Carbonate (CO3-2)
    • Bicarbonate (HCO3-), also called hydrogen carbonate ion
    • Hydroxide (OH-)

    pH Buffers

    • pH buffers are special solutions preventing significant pH variations.
    • They increase the amount of acid or base a solution can tolerate before substantial pH changes.
    • Buffer pH in soil refers to the soil's reserve acidity or the amount of limestone required to raise the pH.
    • Comparing pH with buffer pH helps determine the amount of limestone needed.

    Matter

    • A pure substance is made of only one kind of particle with a fixed structure.
    • An element can't be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means.
    • A compound is made of identical molecules consisting of atoms of two or more elements.
    • Mixtures contain two or more substances that are not chemically combined.
    • A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition throughout.
    • A heterogeneous mixture does not have a uniform composition throughout.
    • A solid is incompressible, has a fixed volume and shape.
    • A liquid is incompressible, has a fixed volume, but variable shape.
    • A gas is compressible, has a variable volume and shape.

    Atoms

    • Protons are positively charged subatomic particles found in the atomic nucleus.
    • Neutrons are neutral subatomic particles found in the atomic nucleus.
    • Electrons are negatively charged particles arranged in energy levels outside the nucleus.
    • AMU stands for atomic mass unit.
    • The Octet Rule describes the tendency of atoms to have 8 electrons in their outermost shell.
    • The valence shell is the outermost energy level in an atom.
    • Valence electrons are found in the outermost energy level.
    • An ion is any atom or group of atoms with a positive or negative charge.
    • Cations are positively charged ions.
    • Anions are negatively charged ions.
    • Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
    • Atomic mass is the weighted average of all the isotopes of an element.
    • Mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in an element's most common isotope.
    • Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
    • Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons when forming a bond.
    • Atomic radius is the average distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron shell.
    • Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom or molecule.
    • Electron affinity is the ability of an atom to gain an electron.

    Solutions

    • A substance dissolved in a solution is called a solute.
    • A solvent is a substance, usually a liquid, that dissolves the solute.
    • A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
    • "Dissolve" means to break apart and mix evenly into another substance.
    • A dilute solution has a small amount of solute compared to solvent.
    • A concentrated solution has a large amount of solute compared to solvent.
    • Concentration is the amount of solute in a given volume of solution.
    • A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve.
    • A supersaturated solution contains more solute than it should at a given temperature and pressure.
    • Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
    • Solubility is the degree to which a substance dissolves in a solvent.
    • A soluble substance dissolves in a solvent.
    • An insoluble substance does not dissolve in a solvent.

    Acidity and Alkalinity

    • pH is the measure of H+ ions (or H3O+) in a solution.
    • The pH scale is a logarithmic scale for hydrogen ion concentration.
    • Acids donate protons.
    • Bases accept protons.
    • Acids dissolve metals, taste sour, react with bases to form water and a salt, and turn litmus paper red.
    • Bases feel slippery, taste bitter, react with acids to form water and a salt, and turn litmus paper blue.
    • Dissociation is the process of splitting into ions in a solution.
    • Strong acids and bases completely dissociate, while weak ones do not.
    • A neutralization reaction occurs when an acid and a base react to form water and a salt.

    Common Acids and Bases

    • Common Acids
      • Hydrochloric acid (HCl) (commercial name: muriatic acid) - strong acid
      • Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) - strong acid
      • Nitric acid (HNO3) - strong acid
      • Acetic acid (CH3COOH) (in vinegar) - weak acid
    • Common Bases
      • Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (caustic soda, lye) - strong base
      • Potassium hydroxide (KOH) - strong base
      • Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) (baking soda) - strong base
      • Ammonia (NH3) - weak base

    Acidity

    • Acidity is the concentration of H+ ions (H3O+).
    • Total acidity (or titratable acidity) is measured by neutralizing all H+ ions with a base. It is a better indicator of acid's impact than pH.
    • Hot acidity is determined by using hot peroxide treatment to measure net acidity or net alkalinity.

    Alkalinity

    • Alkalinity is the concentration of OH- ions.
    • There is a pOH scale similar to the pH scale, but it is not commonly used.
    • Common components of alkalinity include carbonate (CO3-2), bicarbonate (HCO3-) (also known as hydrogen carbonate ion), and hydroxide (OH-).

    pH Buffers

    • pH buffers are solutions that prevent large changes in pH.
    • They increase the amount of acid or base that can be added without significantly changing the pH.
    • Buffer pH is a measurement of the amount of reserve acidity in soil or how much limestone to raise a soil's pH.

    Matter and its Properties

    • Pure substances are composed of only one type of particle with a fixed structure.
    • Elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical processes.
    • Compounds are formed from two or more elements chemically combined in fixed ratios.
    • Mixtures contain two or more substances that are not chemically combined.
    • Homogeneous mixtures have a uniform composition throughout, appearing as a single phase.
    • Heterogeneous mixtures have a non-uniform composition throughout, with visible separation between components.
    • Solids are incompressible, have a fixed volume and shape.
    • Liquids are incompressible, have a fixed volume but variable shape.
    • Gases are compressible, have a variable volume and shape.

    Atoms and Subatomic Particles

    • Protons are positively charged particles located in the atomic nucleus.
    • Neutrons are neutral particles located in the atomic nucleus.
    • Electrons are negatively charged particles arranged in energy levels surrounding the nucleus.
    • Atomic mass unit (AMU) is a standard unit for measuring the mass of atoms.
    • The Octet Rule describes the tendency of atoms to achieve a stable configuration of eight electrons in their outermost energy level (valence shell).
    • Valence electrons are located in the outermost energy level of an atom.
    • Ions are atoms or groups of atoms with a net positive or negative charge.
    • Cations are positively charged ions.
    • Anions are negatively charged ions.
    • Atomic number represents the number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
    • Atomic mass is the weighted average of the masses of all isotopes of an element.
    • Mass number represents the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.
    • Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

    Chemical Bonding and Properties

    • Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond.
    • Atomic radius is the average distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron shell.
    • Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom or molecule.
    • Electron affinity is the ability of an atom to accept an electron.

    Solutions and Concentrations

    • Solute is the substance dissolved in a solution.
    • Solvent is the substance that dissolves the solute, usually a liquid.
    • Solution is a homogeneous mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent.
    • Dilute solution contains a relatively small quantity of solute compared to the solvent.
    • Concentrated solution contains a relatively large quantity of solute in a given volume.
    • Concentration measures the amount of solute in a given volume of solution.
    • Saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
    • Supersaturated solution contains more solute than it can normally hold at a given temperature and pressure.
    • Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
    • Solubility is the degree to which a substance dissolves in a solvent.
    • Soluble substances dissolve in specific solvents.
    • Insoluble substances do not dissolve in a particular solvent.

    Acids and Bases

    • pH measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.
    • pH scale is a logarithmic scale representing hydrogen ion concentration.
    • Acids are proton donors (H+).
    • Bases are proton acceptors.
    • Acid properties:
      • Dissolve metals
      • Taste sour
      • React with bases to form water and a salt
      • Turn litmus paper red
    • Base properties:
      • Feel slippery
      • Taste bitter
      • React with acids to form water and a salt
      • Turn litmus paper blue
    • Dissociation is the process of an acid or base splitting into ions in a solution.
    • Strong acids and bases completely dissociate in solution.
    • Weak acids and bases do not completely dissociate in solution.
    • Neutralization reaction is when an acid and a base react to form water and salt.

    Common Acids and Bases

    • Hydrochloric acid (HCl): strong acid
    • Sulfuric acid (H2SO4): strong acid
    • Nitric acid (HNO3): strong acid
    • Acetic acid (CH3COOH): weak acid
    • Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): strong base
    • Potassium hydroxide (KOH): strong base
    • Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3): weak base
    • Ammonia (NH3): weak base

    Acidity and Alkalinity

    • Acidity refers to the concentration of H+ ions (H3O+) in solution.
    • Total acidity (titratable acidity) is the acidity measured by neutralizing all H+ ions with a base. It provides a better prediction of acid's impact than pH.
    • Hot acidity is determined by oxidizing Fe and Mn in a solution and measuring the potential pH change.
    • Net acidity is the potential for pH to decrease to acidic values after oxidation.
    • Net alkalinity is the excess alkalinity or the amount needed to neutralize the sample.
    • Alkalinity refers to the concentration of OH- ions in solution.
    • pOH scale is similar to the pH scale, but less commonly used.

    Common Alkalinity Components

    • Carbonate (CO3-2)
    • Bicarbonate (HCO3-) (hydrogen carbonate ion)
    • Hydroxide (OH-)

    pH Buffers

    • pH buffers are solutions that resist large changes in pH.
    • They increase the amount of acid or base that can be added before the pH changes significantly.
    • Buffer pH in soil analysis represents the reserve acidity or how much limestone is needed to raise the soil's pH.
    • Buffer pH is compared to soil pH to determine the amount of limestone needed to adjust the acidity.

    Matter

    • A pure substance is made of only one kind of particle with a fixed structure.
    • An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical processes.
    • A compound is a substance made of identical molecules consisting of atoms of two or more elements.
    • Mixtures contain two or more substances not chemically combined.
    • A homogeneous mixture has components evenly distributed, appearing as a single phase.
    • A heterogeneous mixture has non-uniform composition.
    • A solid is incompressible, has a fixed volume and shape.
    • A liquid is incompressible, has a fixed volume, but variable shape.
    • A gas is compressible, has a variable volume and shape.

    Atoms

    • Protons are positively charged subatomic particles found in the atomic nucleus.
    • Neutrons are neutral subatomic particles found in the atomic nucleus.
    • Electrons are negatively charged particles arranged in energy levels.
    • AMU stands for atomic mass unit.
    • The octet rule describes the tendency of electrons to arrange in a 2-8-8 pattern around the nucleus.
    • The valence shell is the outermost energy level.
    • Valence electrons are arranged in the outermost energy level.
    • An ion is an atom or group of atoms with a positive or negative charge.
    • Cations are positively charged ions.
    • Anions are negatively charged ions.
    • Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
    • Atomic mass is the weighted average of all isotopes of an element.
    • Mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons in an element's most common isotope.
    • Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
    • Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons during bond formation.
    • Atomic radius is the average distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron shell.
    • Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom or molecule.
    • Electron affinity is an atom's ability to accept an electron.

    Solutions

    • Solute is the substance dissolved in a solution.
    • Solvent is the substance, usually a liquid, that dissolves the solute.
    • A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
    • "Dissolve" means to cause a substance to break apart and mix evenly into another substance.
    • A dilute solution contains a relatively small amount of solute compared to the solvent.
    • "Concentrated" refers to a solution with a relatively large amount of solute in a unit amount of mixture.
    • Concentration measures the number of particles in a given volume, often in a mixture or solution.
    • A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
    • A supersaturated solution contains more solute than it should at a given temperature and pressure.
    • Molarity is the moles of solute per liters of solution.
    • Solubility is the degree to which a substance dissolves in a solvent.
    • A soluble substance dissolves in certain fluids.
    • Insoluble means incapable of dissolving in a solvent.

    pH

    • pH: the potential H+ ions (or H3O+) in a solution.
    • pH scale: a logarithmic scale representing the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
    • Acids are proton donors.
    • Bases are proton acceptors.

    Acid Properties

    • Dissolves metals.
    • Sour taste
    • Reacts with bases to form water and a salt.
    • Turns litmus paper red.

    Base Properties

    • Feels slippery.
    • Tastes bitter.
    • Reacts with acids to form water and a salt.
    • Turns litmus paper blue.

    Dissociation and Neutralization

    • Dissociation is the process where a substance splits into ions in a solution.
    • Strong acids and bases completely dissociate in solution, while weak acids and bases do not.
    • A neutralization reaction occurs when an acid and a base react to form water and a salt.

    Common Acids and Bases

    • Common Acids:

      • Hydrochloric acid (HCl) - strong acid
      • Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) - strong acid
      • Nitric acid (HNO3) - strong acid
      • Acetic acid (CH3COOH) - weak acid (found in vinegar)

    • Common Bases:

      • Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) - strong base (caustic soda, lye)
      • Potassium hydroxide (KOH) - strong base
      • Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) - strong base (baking soda)
      • Ammonia (NH3) - weak base

    Acidity and Alkalinity

    • Acidity: the concentration of H+ ions (H3O+).
    • Total acidity (titratable acidity): determined by titrating a base into a solution to neutralize all H+ ions.
    • Hot acidity: determined by hot peroxide treatment to measure:
      • Net acidity - the potential for pH to decrease to acidic values after the oxidation of Fe and Mn in a solution.
      • Net alkalinity - the excess alkalinity or the amount needed to neutralize the sample
      • Net alkalinity = -(hot acidity)
    • Alkalinity: the concentration of OH- ions.
    • pOH scale works similarly to the pH scale but is less commonly used.

    Main Components of Alkalinity

    • Carbonate (CO3-2)
    • Bicarbonate (HCO3-) also known as hydrogen carbonate ion
    • Hydroxide (OH-)

    pH Buffers

    • pH buffers: solutions that prevent large variations in pH.
    • Also known as solutions that increase the amount of acid or base that can be added before the pH significantly changes.
    • Buffer pH (in relation to soil): measurement of the amount of reserve acidity in soil or how much limestone is needed to raise the soil's pH.
    • Compare pH with buffer pH to determine the amount of limestone to add to soil.

    Matter

    • A pure substance is made of only one kind of particle with a fixed structure.
    • An element is any substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by ordinary chemical processes.
    • A compound is any substance composed of identical molecules consisting of atoms of two or more chemical elements.
    • Mixtures contain two or more substances that are not chemically combined.
    • A homogeneous mixture is a mixture where the components are evenly distributed throughout, meaning the composition is uniform throughout the entire sample.
    • A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture where the composition is not uniform throughout.
    • A solid is incompressible, has a fixed volume and shape.
    • A liquid is incompressible and has a fixed volume, but variable shape.
    • A gas is compressible and has a variable volume and shape.

    Atomic Structure

    • Protons are positively charged subatomic particles that are in the atomic nucleus.
    • Neutrons are neutral subatomic particles that are in the atomic nucleus.
    • Electrons are negatively charged particles and are arranged in energy levels.
    • AMU stands for atomic mass unit.
    • The octet rule describes the tendency of electrons to arrange in a 2-8-8 manner around the atomic nucleus.
    • The valence shell is the outermost energy level.
    • Valence electrons are arranged in the outermost energy level.
    • An ion is any atom or group of atoms that bears one or more positive or negative electrical charges.
    • Cations are positively charged ions.
    • Anions are negatively charged ions.
    • Atomic number equals the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.
    • Atomic mass is the weighted average of all the isotopes of an element.
    • Mass number equals the number of protons and neutrons in an element’s most common isotope.
    • Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.
    • Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons when forming a chemical bond.
    • Atomic radius is the average distance between the center of an atom's nucleus and its outermost electron shell.
    • Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an isolated atom or molecule.
    • Electron affinity is the ability of an atom to accept an electron.

    Solutions

    • A substance that is dissolved in a solution is called a solute.
    • Solvent is a substance, ordinarily a liquid, in which other materials dissolve to form a solution.
    • A solution is a homogeneous type of mixture of two or more substances.
    • "Dissolve" means to cause a substance to break apart and mix evenly into another substance.
    • A dilute solution contains a relatively small quantity of solute as compared with the amount of solvent
    • "Concentrated" refers to a relatively large quantity of substance present in a unit amount of a mixture.
    • Concentration is the measurement of the number of particles present in a given volume, often in a mixture or solution.
    • A saturated solution is a solution with the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent.
    • A supersaturated solution is a solution that contains more solute than it should at a given temperature and pressure.
    • Molarity is the moles of a solute per liters of a solution.
    • Solubility is the degree to which a substance dissolves in a solvent to make a solution.
    • A substance is soluble if it dissolves in certain fluids.
    • Insoluble means incapable of dissolving in a solvent.

    pH and Acids/Bases

    • pH: the potential H+ ions (or H3O+) in a solution.
    • pH scale: a logarithmic scale used to represent the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
    • Acids are proton donors.
    • Bases are proton acceptors.

    Properties of Acids

    • Can dissolve metals
    • Sour taste
    • Reacts with bases to form water and a salt
    • Turns litmus paper red

    Properties of Bases

    • Feels slippery

    • Tastes bitter

    • Reacts with acids to form water and a salt

    • Turns litmus paper blue

    • Dissociation is the process that a substance splits into ions in a solution.

    • Strong acids and bases completely dissociate in solution, while weak acids and bases do not.

    • Neutralization reaction is when an acid and a base react to form water and a salt.

    Common Acids Found in Labs

    • Hydrochloric acid (commercial name: muriatic acid) HCl strong acid
    • Sulfuric acid H2SO4 strong acid
    • Nitric acid HNO3 strong acid
    • Acetic acid (in vinegar) CH3COOH weak acid

    Common Bases Found in Labs

    • Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda, lye) NaOH strong base
    • Potassium hydroxide KOH strong base
    • Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) NaHCO3 strong base
    • Ammonia NH3 weak base

    Acidity and Alkalinity

    • Acidity: the concentration of H+ ions (H3O+)
    • Total acidity (or titratable acidity): determined by titrating (adding slowly in measured increments) a base into a solution to neutralize all of the H+ ions.
    • A better predictor of acid’s impact than the pH value
    • Hot acidity: determined using hot peroxide treatment method to determine:
      • Net acidity – the potential for pH to decrease to acidic values after the oxidation of Fe and Mn in a solution
      • Net alkalinity – the excess alkalinity or the amount to neutralize the sample
      • Net alkalinity = -(hot acidity)
    • Alkalinity: the concentration of OH- ions
    • There is a pOH scale that works the same as the pH scale – not commonly used
    • 3 common components of alkalinity commonly measured:
      • Carbonate (CO3-2)
      • Bicarbonate (HCO3-) also known as hydrogen carbonate ion
      • Hydroxide (OH-)

    pH Buffers

    • pH buffers: special solutions which prevent large variations in pH
      • A.k.a. increases the amount of acid or base that can be added before the pH changes substantially
    • Buffer pH: in relation to soil -> measurement of the amount of reserve acidity of soil or how much limestone to raise a soil’s pH
      • Compare pH with buffer pH to help determine how much limestone to add

    Matter & its properties

    • Pure substance: Made of only one type of particle with a fixed structure.
    • Element: Cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical processes.
    • Compound: Made of identical molecules with atoms of two or more elements.
    • Mixture: Two or more substances not chemically combined.
    • Homogeneous mixture: Components evenly distributed, uniform composition, single phase.
    • Heterogeneous mixture: Non-uniform composition, visible separation of components.
    • Solid: Incompressible, fixed volume and shape.
    • Liquid: Incompressible, fixed volume, variable shape.
    • Gas: Compressible, variable volume and shape.

    Atomic Structure

    • Protons: Positively charged, located in the nucleus.
    • Neutrons: Neutral, located in the nucleus.
    • Electrons: Negatively charged, arranged in energy levels.
    • Atomic Mass Unit (AMU): Unit of measurement for atomic mass.
    • Octet Rule: Tendency of electrons to arrange in a 2-8-8 pattern around the nucleus.
    • Valence shell: Outermost energy level.
    • Valence electrons: Electrons in the outermost energy level.

    Ions

    • Ion: Atom or group of atoms with a positive or negative charge.
    • Cation: Positively charged ion.
    • Anion: Negatively charged ion.

    Atomic Properties

    • Atomic number: Number of protons in the nucleus.
    • Atomic mass: Weighted average of all isotopes of an element.
    • Mass number: Number of protons and neutrons in the most common isotope.
    • Isotope: Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
    • Electronegativity: An atom's ability to attract electrons in a bond.
    • Atomic radius: Average distance between the nucleus and outermost electron shell.
    • Ionization energy: Energy required to remove an electron.
    • Electron affinity: An atom's ability to accept an electron.

    Solutions

    • Solute: Substance dissolved in a solution.
    • Solvent: Substance (often a liquid) that dissolves the solute.
    • Solution: Homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
    • Dissolve: To cause a substance to break apart and mix evenly with another.
    • Dilute solution: Relatively small amount of solute compared to solvent.
    • Concentrated solution: Relatively large amount of solute compared to solvent.
    • Concentration: Measurement of the number of particles in a given volume.
    • Saturated solution: Maximum amount of solute dissolved in solvent.
    • Supersaturated solution: More solute than should be dissolved at a given temperature/pressure.
    • Molarity: Moles of solute per liter of solution.
    • Solubility: Degree to which a substance dissolves in a solvent.
    • Soluble: Dissolves in certain fluids.
    • Insoluble: Cannot dissolve in a solvent.

    Acids and Bases

    • pH: Potential hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in a solution.
    • pH scale: Logarithmic scale representing hydrogen ion concentration.
    • Acids: Proton donors.
    • Bases: Proton acceptors.

    Properties of Acids

    • Dissolve metals
    • Sour taste
    • React with bases to form water and salt
    • Turn litmus paper red

    Properties of Bases

    • Feel slippery
    • Taste bitter
    • React with acids to form water and salt
    • Turn litmus paper blue

    Dissociation and Neutralization

    • Dissociation: Separation of a substance into ions in solution.
    • Strong acids/bases: Dissociate completely in solution.
    • Weak acids/bases: Do not completely dissociate.
    • Neutralization reaction: Reaction of an acid and base to form water and salt.

    Common Acids and Bases

    • Hydrochloric acid (HCl): Strong acid.
    • Sulfuric acid (H2SO4): Strong acid.
    • Nitric acid (HNO3): Strong acid.
    • Acetic acid (CH3COOH): Weak acid.
    • Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): Strong base.
    • Potassium hydroxide (KOH): Strong base.
    • Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3): Strong base.
    • Ammonia (NH3): Weak base.

    Acidity and Alkalinity

    • Acidity: Concentration of H+ ions (H3O+).
    • Total acidity: Measured by titrating a base to neutralize H+ ions.
    • Hot acidity: Determined by hot peroxide treatment, measures potential for pH change after oxidation of Fe and Mn.
    • Net alkalinity: Excess alkalinity or amount needed to neutralize a sample (negative value of hot acidity).
    • Alkalinity: Concentration of OH- ions.
    • pH buffers: Solutions that prevent large changes in pH.

    Buffer pH in Soil

    • Buffer pH: Measures the amount of reserve acidity in soil, indicating how much limestone is required to raise pH.
    • Comparing pH and buffer pH helps determine limestone additions for adjusting soil acidity.

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    Test your knowledge on pure substances, mixtures, and the states of matter. This quiz covers essential concepts including atomic structure, properties of solids, liquids, and gases. Challenge yourself with questions that will reinforce your understanding of these fundamental chemistry topics.

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