Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following is NOT a general property of mixtures?
Which of the following is NOT a general property of mixtures?
- Components can be easily separated.
- Each component retains its original properties.
- Mixtures can be converted into component substances by physical processes.
- The proportion of components is fixed. (correct)
Which of the following is true about the conversion between substances (compounds and elements)?
Which of the following is true about the conversion between substances (compounds and elements)?
- They are always converted through physical processes.
- They are always converted through physical processes.
- They are only converted through physical processes.
- They are only converted through chemical processes. (correct)
A patient suffering from dehydration due to excessive diarrhea would likely benefit from which type of IV solution?
A patient suffering from dehydration due to excessive diarrhea would likely benefit from which type of IV solution?
- Isotonic (correct)
- Hypotonic
- Hypertonic
- None of the above
Which of the following is a key factor that influences the rate of dissolution?
Which of the following is a key factor that influences the rate of dissolution?
A supersaturated solution is best described as a solution that:
A supersaturated solution is best described as a solution that:
Which of the following is a unit commonly used to express the concentration of a solution?
Which of the following is a unit commonly used to express the concentration of a solution?
What is the main factor that governs the solubility of a gas in a liquid?
What is the main factor that governs the solubility of a gas in a liquid?
In general, as the temperature of a solution increases, the solubility of a solid solute:
In general, as the temperature of a solution increases, the solubility of a solid solute:
What is the dispersed phase in a colloid?
What is the dispersed phase in a colloid?
What is the Tyndall effect?
What is the Tyndall effect?
Which of the following is an example of a solid-solid solution?
Which of the following is an example of a solid-solid solution?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a colloid?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a colloid?
Which of the following is an example of an aerosol?
Which of the following is an example of an aerosol?
What is the process by which the dispersed phase of a colloid is made to aggregate and separate from the continuous phase?
What is the process by which the dispersed phase of a colloid is made to aggregate and separate from the continuous phase?
What is the main reason for the cleansing action of soap?
What is the main reason for the cleansing action of soap?
What is the correct classification of a solution where a gas is dissolved in a liquid?
What is the correct classification of a solution where a gas is dissolved in a liquid?
Which of the following is NOT a true solution?
Which of the following is NOT a true solution?
What is the main difference between a colloid and a suspension?
What is the main difference between a colloid and a suspension?
Why does the sky appear blue during the day?
Why does the sky appear blue during the day?
Which of the following is an example of an association colloid?
Which of the following is an example of an association colloid?
What is the term used to describe a mixture where the components are not uniformly distributed?
What is the term used to describe a mixture where the components are not uniformly distributed?
Which of the following is NOT an example of a colloid?
Which of the following is NOT an example of a colloid?
What is the dispersion medium in a foam?
What is the dispersion medium in a foam?
What is the dispersion medium in an emulsion?
What is the dispersion medium in an emulsion?
What is the name of the colloidal particle formed when a coronavirus-infected patient coughs or sneezes, dispersing fine droplets of respiratory fluid containing viral particles in the atmosphere?
What is the name of the colloidal particle formed when a coronavirus-infected patient coughs or sneezes, dispersing fine droplets of respiratory fluid containing viral particles in the atmosphere?
Which of the following is NOT a colloid?
Which of the following is NOT a colloid?
Which statement best describes the 'like dissolves like' rule?
Which statement best describes the 'like dissolves like' rule?
Which of the following is a polar compound?
Which of the following is a polar compound?
Which of the following is MOST effective in coagulating colloidal sulphur?
Which of the following is MOST effective in coagulating colloidal sulphur?
Which of the following is an example of a homogeneous mixture?
Which of the following is an example of a homogeneous mixture?
Which of the following is an example of a suspension?
Which of the following is an example of a suspension?
Which of the following is an example of a pure substance?
Which of the following is an example of a pure substance?
What is the correct order of steps involved in the solution process?
What is the correct order of steps involved in the solution process?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the dissolution of an ionic compound in water?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the dissolution of an ionic compound in water?
Which of the following pairs of substances is MOST likely to dissolve in each other?
Which of the following pairs of substances is MOST likely to dissolve in each other?
Which of the following intermolecular forces is strongest?
Which of the following intermolecular forces is strongest?
Which of the following statements is TRUE关于溶液？
Which of the following statements is TRUE关于溶液？
What is the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is dissolved in water at constant pressure?
What is the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is dissolved in water at constant pressure?
What is the sign of the enthalpy change (ΔHsoln) for an exothermic dissolution process?
What is the sign of the enthalpy change (ΔHsoln) for an exothermic dissolution process?
In which step of the solution process does the enthalpy change represent the energy required to separate solute particles from each other?
In which step of the solution process does the enthalpy change represent the energy required to separate solute particles from each other?
Which of the following is an example of an ideal solution?
Which of the following is an example of an ideal solution?
What is the term used for the enthalpy change associated with the process of completely surrounding solute particles with solvent molecules?
What is the term used for the enthalpy change associated with the process of completely surrounding solute particles with solvent molecules?
When water is used as the solvent, what specific term is used to describe the energy change of surrounding solute particles with solvent molecules?
When water is used as the solvent, what specific term is used to describe the energy change of surrounding solute particles with solvent molecules?
Which of the following factors influences lattice energy?
Which of the following factors influences lattice energy?
How does lattice energy affect the solubility of ionic solids in water?
How does lattice energy affect the solubility of ionic solids in water?
Why are instant cold packs often based on ammonium nitrate?
Why are instant cold packs often based on ammonium nitrate?
Which of the following salts is most likely to produce heat when dissolved in water?
Which of the following salts is most likely to produce heat when dissolved in water?
Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between heat of solution (ΔHsoln) and the strength of interparticle forces?
Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between heat of solution (ΔHsoln) and the strength of interparticle forces?
Which of the following is true about the 'ideal' solution?
Which of the following is true about the 'ideal' solution?
What is the relationship between the magnitude of the lattice energy and the solubility of an ionic solid in water?
What is the relationship between the magnitude of the lattice energy and the solubility of an ionic solid in water?
Which of the following ionic compounds would you expect to have the highest lattice energy?
Which of the following ionic compounds would you expect to have the highest lattice energy?
If the dissolving of a substance results in an increase in temperature, which of the following statements is true about the heat of solution?
If the dissolving of a substance results in an increase in temperature, which of the following statements is true about the heat of solution?
In the equation ΔHsoln = ΔHsolute + ΔHsolvent + ΔHmix, which term represents the energy change associated with the formation of new solute-solvent interactions?
In the equation ΔHsoln = ΔHsolute + ΔHsolvent + ΔHmix, which term represents the energy change associated with the formation of new solute-solvent interactions?
A student adds 4.00 g of NaOH(s) to 100 g of water in a polystyrene foam cup. The temperature of the water rises by 10.0 °C. Assuming the polystyrene foam cup is well insulated and the specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/°C·g, what is the enthalpy change for the dissolution of NaOH in kJ/mol?
A student adds 4.00 g of NaOH(s) to 100 g of water in a polystyrene foam cup. The temperature of the water rises by 10.0 °C. Assuming the polystyrene foam cup is well insulated and the specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/°C·g, what is the enthalpy change for the dissolution of NaOH in kJ/mol?
Which of the following pairs of ions has the greatest enthalpy of hydration?
Which of the following pairs of ions has the greatest enthalpy of hydration?
Why is the enthalpy of solution an important factor in determining the formation of solutions?
Why is the enthalpy of solution an important factor in determining the formation of solutions?
Which of the following actions would likely lead to a supersaturated solution?
Which of the following actions would likely lead to a supersaturated solution?
What is the purpose of using a calorimeter in the determination of the enthalpy of solution?
What is the purpose of using a calorimeter in the determination of the enthalpy of solution?
A student is investigating the heat of solution of calcium chloride (CaCl2) and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). They accurately weigh 4 g of each salt and dissolve it in 40 mL of water. Which of the following is a reasonable assumption they can make about the heat exchange with the surroundings?
A student is investigating the heat of solution of calcium chloride (CaCl2) and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). They accurately weigh 4 g of each salt and dissolve it in 40 mL of water. Which of the following is a reasonable assumption they can make about the heat exchange with the surroundings?
Which of the following accurately describes the purpose of Project 2.4 in the chemistry textbook?
Which of the following accurately describes the purpose of Project 2.4 in the chemistry textbook?
What is the primary reason why a solution reaches equilibrium when no more solute will dissolve, even with continued stirring?
What is the primary reason why a solution reaches equilibrium when no more solute will dissolve, even with continued stirring?
When an ionic solid dissolves in water, what happens to the ions?
When an ionic solid dissolves in water, what happens to the ions?
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the concept of a supersaturated solution?
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the concept of a supersaturated solution?
You are asked to prepare a supersaturated solution of sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3). Which of the following steps would be most crucial to ensure the successful preparation of a supersaturated solution?
You are asked to prepare a supersaturated solution of sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3). Which of the following steps would be most crucial to ensure the successful preparation of a supersaturated solution?
In the context of solutions, what is meant by the term "solution equilibrium"?
In the context of solutions, what is meant by the term "solution equilibrium"?
What is the primary factor that determines the solubility of a solid in a liquid?
What is the primary factor that determines the solubility of a solid in a liquid?
A student is preparing a solution of sodium sulphate (Na2SO4). They add a small amount of Na2SO4 to water and observe that it dissolves completely. They continue adding more Na2SO4, and eventually, some solid remains undissolved at the bottom of the container. At this point, the solution is best described as:
A student is preparing a solution of sodium sulphate (Na2SO4). They add a small amount of Na2SO4 to water and observe that it dissolves completely. They continue adding more Na2SO4, and eventually, some solid remains undissolved at the bottom of the container. At this point, the solution is best described as:
What is the primary difference between a saturated solution and a supersaturated solution?
What is the primary difference between a saturated solution and a supersaturated solution?
What characterizes a saturated solution?
What characterizes a saturated solution?
Which solution type allows for more solute to be dissolved without any undissolved particles present?
Which solution type allows for more solute to be dissolved without any undissolved particles present?
What occurs when a seeding crystal is added to a supersaturated solution?
What occurs when a seeding crystal is added to a supersaturated solution?
What factor significantly affects the solubility of gases in liquids?
What factor significantly affects the solubility of gases in liquids?
How does temperature affect the solubility of most solid solutes?
How does temperature affect the solubility of most solid solutes?
In what case would you expect more than the initially added solid to precipitate?
In what case would you expect more than the initially added solid to precipitate?
What is typically required to create a supersaturated solution?
What is typically required to create a supersaturated solution?
Which of the following is a characteristic of an unsaturated solution?
Which of the following is a characteristic of an unsaturated solution?
Which process occurs when forming sodium sulfate from its solute at higher temperatures?
Which process occurs when forming sodium sulfate from its solute at higher temperatures?
What is the term for the solution that stays dissolved despite having exceeded normal saturation?
What is the term for the solution that stays dissolved despite having exceeded normal saturation?
What will happen if a few crystals of salt are added to an unsaturated solution?
What will happen if a few crystals of salt are added to an unsaturated solution?
When does the solubility of a gas generally decrease?
When does the solubility of a gas generally decrease?
How is solubility generally measured?
How is solubility generally measured?
What happens to the solubility of a gas when external heat is added to the system?
What happens to the solubility of a gas when external heat is added to the system?
According to Henry's Law, what effect does increasing the partial pressure of a gas above a liquid have?
According to Henry's Law, what effect does increasing the partial pressure of a gas above a liquid have?
Which equation represents the relationship between solubility and partial pressure of a gas as stated by Henry's Law?
Which equation represents the relationship between solubility and partial pressure of a gas as stated by Henry's Law?
What is the expected effect on gas solubility if the temperature of the solution is increased while keeping pressure constant?
What is the expected effect on gas solubility if the temperature of the solution is increased while keeping pressure constant?
Which of the following gases would not typically obey Henry's Law due to its strong interaction with water?
Which of the following gases would not typically obey Henry's Law due to its strong interaction with water?
If the concentration of CO2 in a solution is measured to be 0.1 M at a pressure of 4 atm, what is the molarity of CO2 when the pressure is decreased to 2 atm?
If the concentration of CO2 in a solution is measured to be 0.1 M at a pressure of 4 atm, what is the molarity of CO2 when the pressure is decreased to 2 atm?
Which of the following factors does NOT affect the solubility of a gas in a liquid?
Which of the following factors does NOT affect the solubility of a gas in a liquid?
How is concentration often expressed in relation to a solute in a solution?
How is concentration often expressed in relation to a solute in a solution?
What is the effect of pollution on aquatic life as nations shift from agriculture-led to industry-led economies?
What is the effect of pollution on aquatic life as nations shift from agriculture-led to industry-led economies?
In the example given for the solubility of nitrogen gas, what is the concentration under atmospheric conditions?
In the example given for the solubility of nitrogen gas, what is the concentration under atmospheric conditions?
What additional precaution should be taken when disposing of personal hygiene materials to protect aquatic life?
What additional precaution should be taken when disposing of personal hygiene materials to protect aquatic life?
What is indicated by the Henry’s law constant for a gas?
What is indicated by the Henry’s law constant for a gas?
What happens to the solubility of a gas when the partial pressure is reduced?
What happens to the solubility of a gas when the partial pressure is reduced?
Which intermolecular force is responsible for the solubility of HBr in water?
Which intermolecular force is responsible for the solubility of HBr in water?
Which intermolecular force is primarily responsible for the dissolution of NaCl in water?
Which intermolecular force is primarily responsible for the dissolution of NaCl in water?
Which intermolecular force is responsible for the solubility of atmospheric O2 in water?
Which intermolecular force is responsible for the solubility of atmospheric O2 in water?
Which of the following intermolecular forces is considered the weakest?
Which of the following intermolecular forces is considered the weakest?
Which of the following compounds is MOST likely to be soluble in water?
Which of the following compounds is MOST likely to be soluble in water?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of hydrogen bonding?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of hydrogen bonding?
Which of the following best describes the solubility of ionic compounds in water?
Which of the following best describes the solubility of ionic compounds in water?
Which of the following intermolecular forces is NOT considered a van der Waals force?
Which of the following intermolecular forces is NOT considered a van der Waals force?
Which of the following statements about the relative strengths of intermolecular forces is TRUE?
Which of the following statements about the relative strengths of intermolecular forces is TRUE?
Which of the following pairs of molecules is MOST likely to exhibit hydrogen bonding between them?
Which of the following pairs of molecules is MOST likely to exhibit hydrogen bonding between them?
Which type of intermolecular force is responsible for the attraction between the Fe2+ ion in hemoglobin and an O2 molecule?
Which type of intermolecular force is responsible for the attraction between the Fe2+ ion in hemoglobin and an O2 molecule?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the solubility rules for ionic compounds?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the solubility rules for ionic compounds?
Which of the following is an example of a compound that is slightly soluble in water?
Which of the following is an example of a compound that is slightly soluble in water?
Which of the following intermolecular forces is primarily responsible for the dissolution of polar molecular solids in water?
Which of the following intermolecular forces is primarily responsible for the dissolution of polar molecular solids in water?
Which of the following pairs of liquids would be considered miscible?
Which of the following pairs of liquids would be considered miscible?
Which of the following compounds is classified as insoluble in water?
Which of the following compounds is classified as insoluble in water?
Which of the following factors does NOT affect the rate of dissolution of a solid solute in a solvent?
Which of the following factors does NOT affect the rate of dissolution of a solid solute in a solvent?
Which of the following statements correctly describes the energy changes involved in the dissolution process?
Which of the following statements correctly describes the energy changes involved in the dissolution process?
Which of the following is the best explanation for why a flask containing ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) in water gets cold when the solution is formed?
Which of the following is the best explanation for why a flask containing ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) in water gets cold when the solution is formed?
Why does increasing the surface area of a solid solute generally increase the rate of dissolution?
Why does increasing the surface area of a solid solute generally increase the rate of dissolution?
Which of the following is TRUE about the solvation energy?
Which of the following is TRUE about the solvation energy?
Which of the following pairs exhibits the strongest intermolecular forces?
Which of the following pairs exhibits the strongest intermolecular forces?
Which of the following is the best explanation for why H2O is a liquid at room temperature while H2S is a gas?
Which of the following is the best explanation for why H2O is a liquid at room temperature while H2S is a gas?
What is the main reason why quicklime (CaO) and slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) are used to remove excess fluoride from drinking water?
What is the main reason why quicklime (CaO) and slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) are used to remove excess fluoride from drinking water?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the process of dissolution?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the process of dissolution?
Which of the following is a correct example of a polar molecular solid?
Which of the following is a correct example of a polar molecular solid?
If a solution process is endothermic, what can be said about the relative amounts of energy involved in breaking solute-solute and solvent-solvent interactions versus forming solute-solvent interactions?
If a solution process is endothermic, what can be said about the relative amounts of energy involved in breaking solute-solute and solvent-solvent interactions versus forming solute-solvent interactions?
Which of the following is NOT a factor that can affect the rate of dissolution of a solid solute?
Which of the following is NOT a factor that can affect the rate of dissolution of a solid solute?
Which of the following best describes the term "hydration" in the context of solution chemistry?
Which of the following best describes the term "hydration" in the context of solution chemistry?
What is the primary difference between a miscible and an immiscible pair of liquids?
What is the primary difference between a miscible and an immiscible pair of liquids?
Flashcards
Types of Solutions
Types of Solutions
Solutions can be isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic based on solute concentration.
Dissolution Rate
Dissolution Rate
The speed at which a solute dissolves in a solvent.
Solubility Dependence
Solubility Dependence
Solubility varies with temperature and pressure conditions.
Concentration Units
Concentration Units
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Ionic Solutes
Ionic Solutes
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Preparing Solutions
Preparing Solutions
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Mixtures Properties
Mixtures Properties
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Substances vs. Mixtures
Substances vs. Mixtures
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Mixture
Mixture
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Homogeneous Mixture
Homogeneous Mixture
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Heterogeneous Mixture
Heterogeneous Mixture
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Examples of Homogeneous Mixtures
Examples of Homogeneous Mixtures
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Examples of Heterogeneous Mixtures
Examples of Heterogeneous Mixtures
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Solution
Solution
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Solute
Solute
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Solvent
Solvent
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Suspension
Suspension
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Colloids
Colloids
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Gaseous Solution
Gaseous Solution
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Liquid Solution
Liquid Solution
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Solid Solution
Solid Solution
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Properties of Solutions
Properties of Solutions
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Separation of Solute from Solvent
Separation of Solute from Solvent
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Alloys
Alloys
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Tyndall Effect
Tyndall Effect
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Dispersed Phase
Dispersed Phase
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Dispersion Medium
Dispersion Medium
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Stability of Colloids
Stability of Colloids
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Types of Colloids
Types of Colloids
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Coagulation
Coagulation
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Assocation Colloid
Assocation Colloid
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Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic
Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic
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Micelles
Micelles
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Exemplary Colloid
Exemplary Colloid
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Non-Polar Molecule
Non-Polar Molecule
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Net Dipole Moment
Net Dipole Moment
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Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular Forces
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Van der Waals Forces
Van der Waals Forces
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Dipole-Dipole Interaction
Dipole-Dipole Interaction
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Dipole-Induced Dipole Force
Dipole-Induced Dipole Force
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Dispersion Forces
Dispersion Forces
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Ion-Dipole Forces
Ion-Dipole Forces
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Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen Bonding
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Solubility Definition
Solubility Definition
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Solubility Rules
Solubility Rules
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Soluble Ionic Compounds
Soluble Ionic Compounds
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Slightly Soluble Compounds
Slightly Soluble Compounds
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Insoluble Compounds
Insoluble Compounds
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Fluoride Effects
Fluoride Effects
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Cleansing Action of Soap
Cleansing Action of Soap
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Suspension vs. Colloid
Suspension vs. Colloid
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Solution vs. Colloid
Solution vs. Colloid
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Pure Substance vs. Mixtures
Pure Substance vs. Mixtures
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Colloidal Particle from Cough
Colloidal Particle from Cough
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Types of Mixtures
Types of Mixtures
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Characteristics of Colloidal Sulphur
Characteristics of Colloidal Sulphur
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Coagulation of Colloids
Coagulation of Colloids
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'Like Dissolves Like' Rule
'Like Dissolves Like' Rule
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Steps in Solution Process
Steps in Solution Process
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Inter-particle Forces
Inter-particle Forces
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Molecular Polarity
Molecular Polarity
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Dipole Moment
Dipole Moment
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Role of Ionic Compounds
Role of Ionic Compounds
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Fluoride Removal Method
Fluoride Removal Method
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Dental Fluorosis
Dental Fluorosis
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Skeletal Fluorosis
Skeletal Fluorosis
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Molecular Solids
Molecular Solids
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Polar vs Nonpolar Solvents
Polar vs Nonpolar Solvents
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Miscible Liquids
Miscible Liquids
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Immiscible Liquids
Immiscible Liquids
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Dissolution Process
Dissolution Process
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Rate of Dissolution
Rate of Dissolution
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Exothermic Dissolution
Exothermic Dissolution
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Endothermic Dissolution
Endothermic Dissolution
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Hydration Energy
Hydration Energy
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Heat of Solution
Heat of Solution
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Chemical Agitation
Chemical Agitation
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Solute Concentration
Solute Concentration
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Saturated Solution
Saturated Solution
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Unsaturated Solution
Unsaturated Solution
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Supersaturated Solution
Supersaturated Solution
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Dynamic Equilibrium
Dynamic Equilibrium
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Crystallization
Crystallization
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Temperature Effect on Solubility (Solids)
Temperature Effect on Solubility (Solids)
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Temperature Effect on Solubility (Gases)
Temperature Effect on Solubility (Gases)
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Na2S2O3 in Water
Na2S2O3 in Water
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Maximum Solubility of Na2SO4
Maximum Solubility of Na2SO4
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Seeding Crystals
Seeding Crystals
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Chemical Hand Warmers
Chemical Hand Warmers
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Solubility Factors
Solubility Factors
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Experiment for NaCl Solubility
Experiment for NaCl Solubility
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Meta-stable State
Meta-stable State
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Cooling a Supersaturated Solution
Cooling a Supersaturated Solution
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Enthalpy of Solution
Enthalpy of Solution
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Entropy of Solution
Entropy of Solution
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Calorimeter
Calorimeter
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Heat of Solution Experiment
Heat of Solution Experiment
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Endothermic Process
Endothermic Process
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Exothermic Process
Exothermic Process
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Solubility
Solubility
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Heat Change Calculation
Heat Change Calculation
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Type of Ions and Hydration
Type of Ions and Hydration
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Instant Cold Packs
Instant Cold Packs
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Instant Hot Packs
Instant Hot Packs
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Solubility of Gases
Solubility of Gases
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Henry's Law
Henry's Law
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Concentration (C)
Concentration (C)
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Partial Pressure (P)
Partial Pressure (P)
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Henry's Law Constant (k)
Henry's Law Constant (k)
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Effect of Temperature on Solubility
Effect of Temperature on Solubility
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Calculating New Concentration
Calculating New Concentration
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Carbonated Beverages
Carbonated Beverages
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Example Calculation (CO2)
Example Calculation (CO2)
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Environmental Impact of Pollution
Environmental Impact of Pollution
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Importance of Hemoglobin
Importance of Hemoglobin
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Pressure and Solubility Relationship
Pressure and Solubility Relationship
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Incompressibility of Liquids
Incompressibility of Liquids
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Chemical Reactions with Water
Chemical Reactions with Water
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Heat of Solution (ΔHsoln)
Heat of Solution (ΔHsoln)
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Exothermic Reaction
Exothermic Reaction
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Endothermic Reaction
Endothermic Reaction
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Solvation Energy
Solvation Energy
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Lattice Energy (ΔHlat)
Lattice Energy (ΔHlat)
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Molar Heat of Solution
Molar Heat of Solution
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Ideal Solution
Ideal Solution
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Enthalpy Change Components
Enthalpy Change Components
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Temperature Effect in Solutions
Temperature Effect in Solutions
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Water as Solvent
Water as Solvent
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Inter-particle Interaction Forces
Inter-particle Interaction Forces
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Influence of Ion Charges
Influence of Ion Charges
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Study Notes
Unit Outcomes
- Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
- Solution formation involves breaking solute-solute and solvent-solvent interactions and forming solute-solvent interactions.
- Solubility depends on temperature and pressure.
- Concentration is the relative quantity of solute compared to the total solution or solvent.
Types of Mixtures
- Mixtures combine two or more substances, maintaining their individual properties.
- Homogeneous mixtures have uniform composition throughout (e.g., solutions).
- Heterogeneous mixtures have physically distinct parts with non-uniform composition (e.g., suspensions).
Solutions, Suspensions, and Colloids
- Solutions are homogeneous, with solute particles in a size of individual atoms, molecules, or ions.
- Suspensions are heterogeneous, with solid particles dispersed in a liquid without dissolving.
- Colloids are heterogeneous with particle sizes between 1 nm and 100 nm, appearing homogenous but visibly scattering light (Tyndall effect).
Types of Solutions
- Gaseous solutions (gas-gas): The atmosphere is a major example
- Liquid solutions (liquid-solid, liquid-liquid, or gas-liquid): Carbonated drinks, alcoholic beverages, and seawater.
- Solid solutions (solid-solid): Alloys, dental filling
Solubility Rules for Ionic Solids
- Group 1A salts and ammonium salts are soluble.
- Salts containing acetate, nitrate, perchlorate are usually soluble.
- Chlorides, bromides, and iodides are generally soluble, except those containing silver, lead, copper, or mercury.
- Most hydroxides are slightly soluble; Group 1 hydroxides are soluble.
- Most sulfates are soluble except those with barium, strontium, lead, calcium, silver, or mercury.
- Except for Group 1A and ammonium salts, carbonates, sulfides, oxides, and phosphates are generally insoluble in water.
Solution Process
- Dissolution is a physical process, not a chemical change.
- "Like dissolves like": Substances with similar intermolecular forces dissolve in each other.
- Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents.
- Nonpolar substances dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
Intermolecular Forces
- Intermolecular forces influence solubility.
- Types of intermolecular forces (weakest to strongest):
- Dispersion forces
- Dipole-induced dipole forces
- Dipole-dipole forces
- Hydrogen bonds
- Ion-dipole forces
Solubility as Equilibrium
- A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute at a given temperature.
- Unsaturated solutions have dissolved solute below the maximum.
- Supersaturated solutions contain more solute than possible at a given temperature.
Factors Affecting Solubility
- Temperature (solids): Generally, increased temperature increases solubility.
- Temperature (gases): Generally, increased temperature decreases solubility.
- Pressure (gases): Increased pressure increases solubility (Henry's Law).
Concentration Units
- Concentration describes the relative amount of solute in a solution.
- Ways to express solution concentration include mass percentage (%), parts per million (ppm), and parts per billion (ppb).
Heat of Solution
- Heat of solution is the amount of heat absorbed or released when a solute dissolves.
- Endothermic dissolution absorbs heat; exothermic dissolution releases heat.
- Molar heat of solution is the heat absorbed or released when one mole of solute dissolves.
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