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Questions and Answers
What are the three sub-atomic particles in an atom according to the Rutherford model?
protons, neutrons, electrons
What is the charge of a proton?
+1
What is the charge of an electron?
-1
What is the charge of a neutron?
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What is the relationship between atomic number and the number of protons?
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Define isotopes.
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How do ions form?
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What is the Mole in chemistry?
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Study Notes
Atomic Structure
- An atom consists of three sub-atomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.
- Protons are positively charged with a mass of 1, found inside the nucleus.
- Neutrons have no charge with a mass of 1, found inside the nucleus.
- Electrons are negatively charged with almost zero mass, orbiting the nucleus.
- An atom is neutral, so the number of electrons equals the number of protons.
- Atomic Number = Number of protons (also the number of electrons).
- Mass Number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons.
Isotopes
- Isotopes have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
Ions
- Ions are charged particles formed from atoms that donate or accept electrons.
- Metal atoms lose electrons to become positive ions.
- Non-metal atoms gain electrons to become negative ions.
- Ions have an electron arrangement like a Noble Gas, with an outer energy level filled with electrons.
The Mole and Calculations
- Moles = Mass / GFM (Gram Formula Mass).
- Moles = C x V / 23 (where C is concentration and V is volume).
- GFM is the mass of all atoms or ions in the formula of the substance.
- Avogadro's Constant = 6.02 x 10^23.
Chemical Bonding, Structure, and Properties
Metallic Bonding
- Metal elements have strong metallic bonding between positive ions and delocalized electrons.
- The greater the number of delocalized electrons, the greater the charge on the metal ion, the stronger the metallic bond.
- Metals have properties such as:
- Conducting electricity due to delocalized electrons.
- High melting and boiling points.
- Range of densities.
- Strength.
- Electronegativity.
Electronegativity
- Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a covalent bond.
- Non-metal elements have higher electronegativity values than metal atoms.
- Electronegativity is measured using the Pauling scale.
Intramolecular Bonding
Covalent (Pure) Bonding
- Compounds and molecules are formed when atoms interact and form bonds.
- Electronegativity values affect where electrons lie within the bond.
- If atoms are equally electronegative, electrons are shared equally between the two atoms.
Covalent (Polar) Bonding
- If atoms have slight differences in electronegativity, electrons are shared unequally between the two atoms.
- The atom with the higher electronegativity value attracts electrons more, making the bond polarized.
Ionic Bonding
- If atoms in a bond have large differences in electronegativity, electrons are shared unequally between the two atoms.
- Electrons are attracted to one side of the bond more than the other, forming an ionic bond and charged particles or ions.
Intermolecular Bonding – Dipoles
- Types of intermolecular bonding include:
- London Dispersion.
- Permanent dipole-Permanent dipole.
- Hydrogen bonding.
Periodicity in the Periodic Table
- Trends in melting and boiling points, atomic radius, and electronegativity downwards a period and across a group.
- Reasons for these trends are explained.
Chemical Energetics
- Enthalpy is the energy released or taken in when 1 mole of a substance reacts.
- Enthalpy (∆H) = Energy reactants - Energy products.
- Examples of exothermic and endothermic reactions.
- Calculating Enthalpy by Experiment: ∆H = c x mw x ∆T.
- Hess's Law: "The enthalpy change for a chemical reaction is independent of the route taken."
Reactions - Rates and Kinetics
- Factors affecting the rate of a reaction:
- Temperature of reactants.
- Concentration of reactants.
- Particle size (Surface area) of reactants.
- Measuring the rate of a reaction:
- Measuring a change in mass over time.
- Measuring a change in concentration over time.
- Measuring a change in gas volume over time.
Chemical Equilibria
- The equilibrium constant (Kc) = [C]^c [D]^d / [A]^a [B]^b.
- Value of K indicates the extent of the reaction:
- Less than 1: More reactants than products (Effectively no reaction).
- 1: Similar levels of reactants and products.
- Greater than 1: More products than reactants (Effectively complete).
Acid-Base Chemistry
- A Bronsted-Lowry acid is a substance that can donate a proton to form a conjugate base.
- A Bronsted-Lowry base is a substance that can accept a proton to form a conjugate acid.
- Water can act as both an acid and a base when it reacts with actual acids and bases, making it amphoteric.
Transition Metal Chemistry
- Transition metal complexes involve ligands that are electron donors.
- Coordination number and oxidation number are important in transition metal complexes.
- Writing and naming complexes is explained.
Organic Nomenclature and Isomerism
- Types of formulae: Molecular and Structural.
- Naming and drawing alkanes, alkenes, and alcohols.
- Electrophiles and nucleophiles are involved in reactions like halogenation (electrophilic addition).
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Description
Learn about the Rutherford Model of atomic structure, including protons, neutrons, and electrons, and how they make up an atom.
