Chemical Bonding and Reactions

Chemical Bonding and Reactions

• Covalent Bond: A bond formed by sharing electron pairs between atoms.
• Ionic Bond: A bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, creating oppositely charged ions.
• Element: A pure substance composed of only one type of atom, identified by its atomic number (number of protons).
• Compound: A substance formed by chemically bonding two or more different elements.
• Ion: An atom or group of atoms with a net positive or negative charge due to loss or gain of electrons.
• Solution: A homogeneous mixture where one substance (solute) dissolves in another (solvent).
• Solvent: The component of a solution in the greatest amount, dissolving the solute.
• Solute: The substance dissolved in the solvent to form a solution.
• Equilibrium: A state where forward and reverse reactions occur at equal rates, resulting in no net change in concentrations.
• Atom Bond: Can be either covalent or ionic.
• Activation Energy: The energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.
• Products: Substances formed as a result of a reaction.
• Reactants: Substances that undergo a chemical reaction.
• Endothermic Reaction: A reaction absorbing more energy than it releases.
• Exothermic Reaction: A reaction releasing more energy than it absorbs.
• Element Differentiation: Distinguished by the number of protons in their nucleus.
• Element Properties: Determined by the number of electrons.
• Hydrogen Bonds: Formed between polar molecules due to attractions between slightly positive hydrogen atoms and slightly negative atoms.
• pH Scale: A scale measuring acidity or alkalinity ranging from 0 to 14 (0-acidic, 7-neutral, 14-basic).
• Carbohydrates: Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• Catalyst Effect: Catalysts lower the activation energy, speeding up reactions.
• Enzyme Shape Factors: Temperature and pH.
• Four Carbon-Based Molecules: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Each with a specific function.

Cellular Biology

• Prokaryotic Cell: Lacks a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
• Eukaryotic Cell: Contains a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
• Chloroplasts: Responsible for photosynthesis, capturing light energy.
• Mitochondria: "Powerhouses" of the cell, producing energy.
• Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and maintains cell shape.
• Cell Wall: A rigid layer found in some cells, providing support.
• Vacuole: A storage sac within the cell.
• Vesicle: Membrane-bound sacs involved in cell transport.
• Nucleus: Contains DNA and RNA, directing cell growth and reproduction.
• Plant Cell Unique Structures: Cell wall and chloroplasts.
• Shared Cell Characteristics: Cell membrane, cytoplasm, genetic material, metabolic processes.
• Cell Membrane Composition: Phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.
• Oxygen Movement: Passive diffusion across the cell membrane (no energy needed).
• Cellular Respiration: An aerobic process using oxygen to convert glucose into ATP energy.
• Bread Dough Rising: Yeast fermentation produces carbon dioxide gas.
• Photosynthesis Equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
• Cellular Respiration Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O
• Krebs Cycle: Second stage of cellular respiration, breaking down pyruvic acid.
• Photosynthesis: Conversion of light energy to chemical energy.
• Calvin Cycle: Part of photosynthesis, using ATP and NADPH to make sugars.
• Light-Independent Reactions: Photosynthesis reactions relying on ATP and NADPH, also known as the Calvin Cycle.
• Chlorophyll Role: Absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.
• Autotroph: Organism making its own food.
• Heterotroph: Organism getting energy by consuming other organisms.
• Chemosynthesis: Organisms making food via chemical reactions.
• Producer: An organism creating its own food.
• Primary Consumer: Organism feeding on producers (herbivore).
• Secondary Consumer: Organism feeding on primary consumers (carnivore/omnivore).
• Tertiary Consumer: Organism feeding on secondary consumers.
• Ecological Equivalents: Species in similar niches but different regions.
• Niche: Part of an environment species uses to survive and reproduce.
• Commensalism: One species benefits, the other is unaffected.
• Mutualism: Both species benefit.
• Parasitism: One species benefits, while the other is harmed.
• Predation: One organism consuming another for food.
• Endoparasite: Parasite living inside host.
• Ectoparasite: Parasite living on host's surface.
• Carnivore: Animal eating only animals.
• Decomposer: Organism breaking down waste and dead organisms.
• Detrivore: Scavenger feeding on dead organic matter.
• Omnivore: Animal eating both plants and animals.
• Quadrat Sampling: Method to determine the percentage of vegetation/animals in a sample area.
• Mark-and-Recapture: Method to estimate population size by marking and recapturing organisms.
• Biosphere: Part of Earth where life exists.
• Biome: Group of ecosystems with similar climates and organisms.
• Ecosystem: Interacting organisms and their environment.
• Community: All populations in an area.
• Population: Group of individuals of the same species in the same area.
• Organism: Any living thing.
• Keystone Species: Species significantly impacting ecosystem health.
• Primary Succession: Succession on land where no soil exists.
• Secondary Succession: Succession after a disturbance with pre-existing soil.
• Interspecific Competition: Competition between different species.
• Intraspecific Competition: Competition between the same species.
• Carbon Return to Atmosphere: Combustion of organic matter and fossil fuels.
• Microclimate: Small-scale climate variation.
• Catalyst During Reaction: Catalyst remains unchanged.
• Estuary: Where freshwater river meets saltwater ocean.
• Energy Flow in Food Chain: Energy flows from producers to higher trophic levels, with losses at each step.
• Hydrologic Cycle: Movement of water through the biosphere.
• Energy Loss Between Trophic Levels: Loss due to metabolic processes and heat.
• Parasite and Host Survival: Most parasites don't kill hosts to maintain food source and reproduction.
• Population Density: Number of individuals per unit area.
• Population Dispersal: Spatial distribution of individuals within a habitat.
• Exponential Growth: Rapid population increase with unlimited resources.
• Density-Dependent Factors: Factors influenced by population density.
• Pioneer Species: First species to colonize an area in primary succession.
• Geosphere: Earth's solid, nonliving parts.
• Two Density-Dependent Factors: Competition and predation.
• Abyssal Zone: Deepest ocean region with no sunlight.
• Intertidal Zone: Shoreline between high and low tides.
• Neritic Zone: Shallow ocean water over continental shelf.
• Bathyal Zone: From neritic zone edge to continental shelf base.
• Littoral Zone: Shallow freshwater zone with light penetration.
• Benthic Zone: Bottom of a lake, pond, or ocean.

Plant Biology

• Gymnosperms: Plants with exposed seeds.
• Angiosperms: Flowering plants with enclosed seeds.
• Conifers: Cone-bearing plants (a type of gymnosperm).
• Cuticle: Waxy plant layer reducing water loss.
• Stomata: Pores in leaves for gas exchange.
• Vascular System: Plant tissue transporting water and nutrients.
• Dicot: Angiosperm with two seed leaves.
• Monocot: Angiosperm with one seed leaf.
• Ethnobotany: Study of plant use by cultures.
• Water-Independent Reproduction: Pollen and seed development.
• Plant Defense Adaptations: Thorns, spines, chemical defenses.
• Angiosperm Pollination Efficiency: Flower adaptations attract animal pollinators.
• Pharmacologist Plant Study: Plants as medicine sources.
• Selective Breeding: Plant improvement via seed selection.
• Plants Lacking Vascular System: Mosses.