Characteristics of Modern Science

• Science originates from the Latin word "scientia," signifying knowledge.
• Methodology is the scientific technique employed to gather and assess psychological data.
• Common sense psychology refers to a nonscientific compilation of everyday psychological data used for understanding the social environment and influencing behavior.
• The scientific method constitutes the procedures scientists use to collect and validate data, address research questions, elucidate associations, and articulate sentiments.

Characteristics of Modern Science

• A scientific mentality assumes that behavior adheres to a natural order, enabling prediction.
• Gathering empirical data means relying on observable or experienced information.
• Scientists aim to establish broad principles, laws, or theories that elucidate observations.
• Laws are universal scientific axioms that clarify our world and forecast occurrences.
• Good thinking involves systematic and logical thought, characterized by open-mindedness, objectivity, and parsimony, serving as a fundamental instrument of the scientific method.
• Parsimony is a component of sound reasoning that advocates for the simplest explanation unless contradictory evidence exists, also known as Occam's razor.
• Self-correction: contemporary scientists recognize that their own conclusions are susceptible to errors.
• Falsification aims to contest an existing explanation or theory by empirically testing a hypothesis that, if proven false, would undermine the explanation.
• Scientists that share results frequently convene through professional groups and attend conferences to disseminate knowledge of their current endeavors.
• Replication entails duplicating research procedures to confirm that the result remains consistent, which is a core component of the scientific method.

Tools of Psychological Science

• Observation involves systematically documenting and recording occurrences, which is a central instrument of the scientific method.

• Measurement constitutes the scientific appraisal of the magnitude, dimensions, or attributes of an observable phenomenon and stands as a pivotal instrument of the scientific method.

• Experimentation is the methodical approach undertaken to unearth novel information or substantiate that events that have already transpired will reoccur under certain specified conditions.

• Experimentation is only sometimes viable; our predictions must be empirically testable to conduct an experiment.

• Testable: the ability to be empirically tested; typically in reference to a hypothesis.

• A hypothesis that can be tested has two requirements: existing ways to manipulate the setting and observable predicted outcomes.

• Scientific explanation is specifying the antecedent conditions of an event or behavior.

• Antecedent conditions encompass all circumstances that precede the event or behavior requiring explanation, which are also termed as antecedents.

• Comparing treatment conditions: psychology acknowledges the difficulty of pinpointing all antecedents affecting research participants' behavior.

• Subject: the scientific designation for a person partaking in psychological research.

• Treatments involve establishing specific sets of antecedent conditions for controlled study.

• The psychology experiment involves a regulated process wherein subjects are exposed to a minimum of two distinct treatment conditions, followed by assessing their behaviors to evaluate a hypothesis.

• Establishing cause and effect is the capacity to deduce causal links between antecedent states and subject behaviors within an experiment.

• Cause and effect relationship: link between a specific behavior and a collection of antecedents that consistently precedes it, implying its causal role.

• This cause-and-effect connection in experiments yields a temporal relationship, assessing behavioral shifts after subjects undergo treatment.

• Evaluating necessary versus sufficient conditions entails distinguishing between conditions that are each necessary and sufficient.

• Reducing fat consumption can sufficiently induce weight loss, yet it is not essential, given alternate strategies.

• Fuel is an essential prerequisite for a car's functionality due to its indispensability.

Formulating the Hypothesis

• A hypothesis embodies an experiment's central thesis or primary concept.
• Predictive relationship: it involves a predictive link spanning a minimum of two parameters.
• Research: various research methodologies prompt varied formats of hypotheses.

Non-Experimental vs Experimental Hypothesis

• Certain nonexperimental designs will exclude a hypothesis (e.g. case study).
• Nonexperimental hypothesis: forecasts the associations between events or behaviors, rather than causal inferences.
• An experimental hypothesis specifically forecasts cause-and-effect relationships.

Characteristics of an Experimental Hypothesis

• Each experiment mandates at least one testable hypothesis.
• Hypothesis: this serves as a tentative explanation of a behavior.
• Among various potential factors, the number of possible causes must be refined.
• A hypothesis needs to be synthetic, empirically verifiable, open to falsification, concise, and fruitful.

Synthetic Statements

• It can either be empirically verified as true or proven false.
• Avoid analytic statements, as they are always valid.
• Avoid contradictory statements, as they are invariably contradictory.
• Can be articulated through an "If...then" format.
• Expresses a potential interrelation.

Testable Statements

• Manipulation: the means for manipulating antecedent conditions and evaluating ensuing behavior must exist.

Falsifiable Statements

• The research hypothesis is structured to be disprovable by empirical discoveries.
• Designed such that a failure to identify the outcomes must provide evidence that the hypothesis is indeed false.
• "If this book is read with enough care, one ought to be able to design a strong experiment."

Parsimonious Statements

• Simpler explanation: the preferred one over assumptions with supporting evidence.

Fruitful Statements

• It contributes to the introduction of novel investigations.

How Are Hypotheses Formed?

• The inductive model moves from specific instances to broader principles.
• Specifically, it involves assessing singular cases and formulating a cohesive explanatory framework.
• The deductive model involves deduction from overarching principles to forecast specific occurrences.
• It assesses the utility of a theory.
• In practical usage, inductive and deductive reasoning often merge seamlessly.

Building on Prior Research

• Research already done provides a direction.
• Nonexperimental designs stand to elicit speculations regarding cause-and-effect dynamics.
• Investigating earlier research aids in centering your focus on pertinent inquiries, pinpointing potential oversights, and considering fresh implementations.

Serendipity and The Windfall Experiment

• Serendipity: ability by which a discovery can transpire unexpectedly.
• Being vigilant and receptive to unprecedented prospects remains crucial.
• In addition to plain luck, one must possess the requisite insight to leveragу an opening.

Intuition

• It involves instinctive comprehension, devoid of conscious reasoning or rationale.
• Enhancing one's familiarity with a subject increases the likelihood of devising naturally appearing hypotheses.

When All Else Fails

• Explore psychology journals for inspiring content.
• Scrutinize nonexperimental studies.
• Watch activity in any open place.
• Redirect your focus to an existing challenge or difficulty.

Searching the Research Literature

• Thorough research stands as a pivotal element of the study's execution.
• Prior research helps in both substantiating your speculation and recognizing closely congruent inquiries.
• It facilitates refining procedures.
• It provides tips on effective measurement strategies.
• A journal article pertaining to your area of inquiry stands to provide additional resources in its mentioned sections.
• Books feature an overview of a certain study area.
• Meta-analysis: it synthesizes findings from multiple studies.
• Discard popular publications as valid sources.

The Basics of Experimentation

• Manipulate the antecedent condition.
• Prepare a minimum of two treatment conditions.
• Measure the influence on behavior.
• Compare the behaviors statistically.
• Make direct inferences.
• Meticulously structure and regulate experiments.

Independent and Dependent Variables

• Independent Variable (IV) is the deliberately manipulated dimension.
• Aspects of the surroundings
• Aspects of the task at hand
• Differing psychological conditions
• Effectiveness of psychological interventions
• Must have a minimum of two possible values.
• Levels of IV: 2 treatment conditions
• Employed in quasi-experimental scenarios as well.
• In genuine experiments, the subjects are to have no differences relating to previous characteristics.
• Randomly assign groups.
• Confounding is the difference in both the manipulated IV and the subject variables.
• Dependent Variable (DV): is the behavior to change; it is assumed to be dependent on the value of an IV.

Sample Hypothesis

• Anxiety: people with anxiety will not do well in strange situations.

Why Operational Definitions

• Certain concepts have ambiguous or multiple denotations.
• They ensure clarity by describing intangible traits.
• Constructs: these cannot be directly seen, but their effects vary.
• Non-construct variables consist of numerous possible facets.

Operational Definitions

• Numerous thoughts possess many denotations.
• Conceptual definition: explanation of the term in regular everyday speech.
• Operational Definition: exact explanation behind a variable inside the experiment.
• The procedures can be observed.
• Other experts now know exactly what action to carry out.

IV: Experimental Operational Definition

• How does the research produce variant treatment elements?
• Distinctive colors like the color red and color blue used as a baseline for the picture.

DV: Measured Operational Definition

• Explanation on what needed measurement for specific variable.
• Thorough details for the exact behaviors of what has to be assessed and how its graded.
• Study: intelligence is how subjects performed that got taken from the Purdue Non-Language test.
• Study: exactness is how many proper letters were used from some letters which created randomness.

Defining Scales of Measurement

• Exact quantitive measurement
• Lumination Luxes, Foot candles.
• Distance is measured in Meters and in Feet
• Sound is measured in Decibels.
• Consider levels of assessment

Evaluating Operational Definitions

• Reliability includes consistencies.
• Validity means what should be assess are actually being assess.

Reliability

• Dependability and consistencies
• Interrater reliability means there are same measures between those who observe the occurrences.
• Test-retest means assessments can be taken over again from previous intermissions.
• Consistencies: questionnaires being used contains the same questions.

Validity

• What should be studied has to be what’s intended.
• Experimental checks is needed for valid tests for studies.
• Face validity
• Test used is needed to get measure for what is intented.
• Yield is required to allow what should be tested out for future test or behaviors.
• Measuring tools are used for another test to find data to correlate.
• Tests created has to check what should be analyzed during test.

Evaluating the Experiment: Internal Validity

• Internal Validity assesses the capability to ascertain causality amid antecedent states and the outcomes.
• If opposing results exist, the test would be internalized.

Extraneous Variables

• Other items (besides IV) has a chance to be changed for the duration of test that affect the alter of DV.
• Date
• Weariness
• Test subjects characteristics
• guidelines
• Test must be regulated.

Confounding

• Value in extraneous situations shifts through various states of experimentation.
• Test cant be read with confidence.

Classical Threats to Internal Validity

• There are at a number of of extraneous factors to be wary of.
• Intrinsic of test types
• Should at all times be assessed.
• History or previous events that occurred during test
• Maturation internal events that occur in test.
• Test: people repeat test for different times, and can cause practice to occur.
• Instrumentation like tests for measuring should remain same; recording errors, equipment malfunction, extra space for data should be present.
• Statistical-Extreme: scores come to mean if taken over repeatedly.
• Selection: does not need random group; 2 people could’ve had various origins.
• Subject Defect: subjects leaving the tests can come off as distinct.
• Selection communication can work with time, practice, or even death.
• Experts advise more rule controls for the best measures.

Research Ethics

• It is regarded as non-human.
• It lacks beliefs
• But, experts bring values for themselves regarding morals, ethics, and sense.
• Caring for subject is paramount for researchers.
• Aim has to be for human development for habits for the better.
• Research for subjects should be avoided for it may not be accurate.
• Researchers should legally be held accountable for any actions taken.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

• It makes those engaging research have test to evaluate proposed examination before they start,

Putting Participants at Risk

• Tests must have those in it to see what causes it to lead to risk.
• Risk: to be someone who is more to be lead into a negative effect being apart of research.
• Assessing the risks/benefits/weighing, or potential gains/knowledge.

Informed Consent

• Agreeing to have parts with has data after fully knowing the tests.
• Freedom has to obtained from outside affects.
• Subjects get freedom while testing.
• Experts give explanations and must follow the protocols so test can have answers to the questions.
• Data privacy must remain obtained at all times.
• Participants must have consent so researchers can release data.
• Consent must have legal consent.
• For those under adult or disability needs consent from parents.
• Verbal need and writing are required for those important parts for all participants.

The American Psychological Association (APA) Guidelines

• It has expert psychologist assume the role with learners for all engagements for examinations.
• Experts here must follow what they all do to conduct the others to assist.

On Informed Consent

• Consent is required for those being at risk caused by test.
• The risk must have low to be caused if they were to have those already for common routines. ex observing in open, test without any identification.
• Consent need not be required for those actions.

Deception and Full Disclosure

• Sometimes the test is to hide the purpose. Experts mostly have consensus that to gain knowledge is why most test are gained.
• All tests are used to gain insight and has high use to be gained.
• One’s decisions cannot be affected cause of the data
• True reason should be released after checking data.

APA Standard 8.07: Deception in Research

• Psychologists must not attempt investigation for hiding data when it is expected cause effects for test.
• Therapist for test should not purposely cause pain of any type.
• Therapist do not have reasons to keep from subject data from conduct or experiments till they give data; subject can remove them to give info.
• Debrief data may never to get change reverse.
• The pressure in test are kept real regardless of reasons the action were cause.
• Extended action from tests will detail unreality will go through.

Stanley Milgram Experiment

• Test can be explained with names of records.
• Data must be had in places safely by code, it can be used for certain engagements.
• Data should be without comments.

Fraud And Plagiarism

• Action for experiments has to have respect as well.
• Data frauds are fake.
• All content written are edited so it cannot be stolen for others.
• The contents in these studies helps gain benefits.
• Actions of replication assists those for what other can do, with some amazing gains.
• Academic actions used for fraudulent actions.

Plagiarism

• Copy writings or statements that cannot be said as your own.
• Has results with legal actions.
• Rewording without saying where information come from copies some the test.
• Plagarizhing has become common and undetected.

Avoid Plagiarism

• Notes should be fully taken with written actions, with full names for all used sources.
• Identify if the test used are from writing test used or not from you or what used
• State test has to shown name by the start, quote number on paper.
• Paraphrasing can come off from lifting words. Use test as a tool, provide data to credit the data with the writing.
• Use writing that show the actions.
• Be cautious about having to give credit to what the used copy had created.

Ethical Principles of Research

• It involves, trust, competency, honestly, nonactions, objectivity, respect,
• Integrity for those in the space.

The general principles of research ethics are:

• Being honest to any one being affected. Speaking truthfully to the test. Being sincere with what has been tested to conduct. Ensuring truth is told without creating or making promises for test to test for what to expect.

• Refusal to have favoritism for creation.

• Knowing if personal test is being taken for volunteering or test.

• It means protecting those with knowledge for all matters.

• Protection personnel, with tests -Introduction and why data is taken or will discuss Purpose of discussion

• Their place in the the test

• Harm, or benefits for what it means to be tested

• The right not give data

• How knowledge be safe and locked

• Power to have questions refuse for anything.

• For those to contract when assistance be obtained at a later test data.

• Equality not have predujice if they be male, age, or those that come outside for the test, that are a cause for the test at all.

• Tell data and allow assist for those that need assist.

Basic Between-Subjects Design

• Pattern for experience.
• Treatment is general format.
• Various test taken from various subject.
• What is being researched for hypothesis
• How things or the easy factors affects the test.
• How many factors will change for what tests. – What are the factors the test will need for all who apply.
• Who are the test for.
• Various subject for a one time experiment.
• Look what happens with the groups for the subject.
• The closer it comes to the pop the better it is to act for them.
• How test work better it comes from people being examined,
• At least around average for those parts.

Between subjection

• Subject assigned work and it has two groups.
• The stage for it with the other or with out a test and groups in common.
• Using what those in groups do and what is a factor for subject, Experimental those are being controlled.
• Can those parts work here, if their is a action occurring and if can cause it can get what it need to.

Match Group

• Must not randomly work test.

• Subject are assigned test for how how great it is for each factor.

• Action is done sooner than what happens in the experiment.

• Check if tests had good qualities. Pair match.

• Range for those being matched with range has to be trashed for the action.

• Scores must adjacent to what match in rank order.

• To know the test had actions of strong parts coming soon.

• Wanting what is most helpful in the actions if actions works or not.

• If people who give data is little is the action for the test.

• Sometimes it to action needed can be 2 plus testing factors needed.

It has it has for how important or degree of it to had testing.

• various actions that give distinct gains.

• It allows to fully seeing of how acts should perform.

• It is run the groups for the one of testing. With the best test for what need.

• Experts advise test that if parts work select it because it make your test what to assist.

• Need tests that take the factors.

• It test takes extra time.

• The testing is tested for if works or not before is given during for its performance.

Between subject factoral

• Rarely cause single,
• With new test come new variable, they help tests to be as good as it does with only various items.
• New types of studies with 2 actions.
• Used various factors, or actions.
• Provide with actions for one action by data.
• With some actions it comes a way assist tests which is why one has affect a factor that is new.
• When to choose a group based on what will fit best.