Characteristics of Living Things

Characteristics of Living Things

• Biology is the study of living things.
• Living things are composed of at least one cell, either unicellular (like bacteria) or multicellular (like animals and plants).
• Survival necessitates that all living organisms have energy.
• Autotrophs obtain energy from the sun to produce their own nutrients.
• Heterotrophs obtain energy by consuming nutrients from their environment.
• Living things must respond to stimuli, which are environmental factors like light and temperature.
• Reproduction is essential; it can be sexual (requiring two sex cells) or asexual (requiring only one parent cell).
• Development and growth occur through cell division and differentiation, where cells specialize into different jobs.
• Homeostasis must be maintained which is a relatively stable internal environment within a certain range. An example is human body temperature maintained at 98.6 F or 37 C
• A universal genetic code is present in all living things, using DNA to pass genetic information to the next generation.
• Adaptation and evolution occur over time; evolution is a gradual change in a population.
• Individuals cannot evolve.
• Viruses are non-living.

STERNGRR: Key Life Processes

• Synthesis involves organisms building big things (proteins) from amino acids, a process all organisms perform using ribosomes.
• Photosynthesis harnesses light energy to produce sugar.
• Transport is how organisms move substances around their bodies.
• Absorption occurs for single cells.
• Diffusion: the movement of particles from areas of high to low concentration.
• Osmosis: the movement of water in areas of high to low concentration.
• Circulation occurs in many cells via the circulatory system.
• Excretion is the process of how organisms get rid of waste through diffusion, osmosis, organs, and organ systems.
• Respiration is how organisms create ATP energy from glucose.
• Types of respiration include: Anaerobic respiration which does not use oxygen to create pyruvic acid, and alcohol fermentation which produces CO2
• Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to create O2 and CO2.
• Organs and organ systems are involved in gas exchange.
• Nutrition refers to how organisms obtain energy and nutrients.
• Energy is obtained via autotrophs (make their own food like glucose) or heterotrophs (cannot make their own food).
• Organisms acquire material as producers, obtaining carbon from CO2, or as consumers, obtaining carbon from producers.
• Organisms regulate homeostasis through stimuli response, utilizing senses and systems like the nervous and hormonal systems.
• Organisms interacts with, and respond to stimuli.
• Reproduction involves producing more of the same kind, either sexually or asexually.
• Internal growth occurs inside; external growth occurs outside.
• Egg based reproduction example: fish and chicken
• Live birth

Organic Molecules (Biochemistry)

• Biochemistry is the study of chemical composition and reactions in living matter.
• Biochemistry does not contain carbon, except for exceptions such as C02 and bicarbonates.
• Water is an important inorganic material that makes up ⅔ of body weight.
• Carbon compounds are organic, whereas most inorganic compounds lack carbon.
• Macromolecules are large organic molecules.
• ATP stores and releases energy during cell processes, enabling function.
• Organic compounds always contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; carbon indicated something that is or was living.
• Organic molecules have hundreds to thousands of individual molecules - monomers - linked to form polymers.
• Macromolecules, also called polymers, are created when monomers are linked together.
• Four main types of macromolecules exist: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which are essential to maintaining life processes.
• Carbohydrates provide energy and short-term storage. They are made up of sugars and starches, and contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• Ratios of atoms are C:2H:O in that order.
• Carbohydrates provide energy to cells to make ATP and act as structural materials, examples being starch, cellulose, sucrose, and glucose.

Types of Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are classified according to size.
• Monosaccharides: one sugar unit; examples include glucose, deoxyribose, ribose, galactose, and fructose.
• Disaccharides: two sugar units; e.g., fructose, and table sugar.
• Polysaccharides: many sugar units; examples include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.
• They store energy and provide structural support.
• Starch is a straight chain of glucose molecules, with a few side branches.

Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids

• Lipids: waxes, oils, and fats are compounds that are not soluble in water.
• They are soluble in hydrophobic water.
• Lipids store the most energy.
• Lipids have carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but not in a particular ratio.
• Lipids have glycerol and fatty acids.
• There exist five functions: Long term storage, Insulation (protects against heat loss), Protection against water and germs, Chemical messengers, and components of membranes.
• Fatty acids can be saturated (solid) or unsaturated (liquid).
• Proteins are building materials with carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.
• Examples of proteins include hair, skin, muscles, and organs.
• Amino acids are the monomers. the protein depends on the monomers.
• Proteins are enzymes that control the rate of reactions and regulate cell processes.
• Nucleic acids include DNA and RNA and store and transport information that contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
• They're formed from polymers of nucleotides composed of a phosphate group, a five-carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, uracil, cytosine, thymine, and guanine).
• DNA contains genetic information, and RNA builds proteins.
• Carbohydrates and Lipids contain CHO, proteins contain CHON, and nucleic acids contain CHONP.

Enzymes

• Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts to accelerate reactions and are not consumed.
• Specificity determines catalyzation.
• Enzymes typically end with "-ase."
• Enzymes weaken the bonds, which decreases activation energy.
• The Enzyme-Substrate Complex consists of a substrate that acts upon the active site, and the reaction induces a change in active site.
• Enzyme activity is affected by:
  • Extreme temperatures, which denature enzymes
  • pH (regular is 6-8)
  • Ionic concentration (salt ions)
  • Enzyme and substrate concentrations
  • Surface area
• At low temperatures, reactions go slow
• As temperature maximizes, the reaction rate increases as kinetic energy increases.
• Catalysts speed up chemical reactions but do not change.
• An example is a frying pan that heats the catalyst.
• All enzymes are catalysts, but not catalysts are enzymes.
• Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) will break down into water and oxygen.
• Enzymes can act as biological catalysts, occurring inside the cell or secreted by the cells.
• Catalase/peroxidase catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide.
• Usually enzymes end in "-ase" and sometimes "-sin".
• An enzyme is specific to one substrate or molecule.
• The Lock and Key Theory states active site matches shape of the molecule.

Uses of Enzymes

• Enzymes are used in washing products to break down the colored proteins.
• Proteases are used in biological clothing detergent
• Enzymes are used in the food industry: -Pectinase breaks down substances in apple cell walls for greater juice extraction -Lactase breaks down lactose in milk and then makes milk drinkable for lactose intollerant people
• Enzymes are used in seed germination.
• Amino acids are folded in a long chain, and enzymes consist of are made of amino acids.

Cell Structure and Function

• Cells, which has two types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic, are the smallest functional unit of life.
• Prokaryotes do not have membrane structures.
• They lack internal structures and are unicellular, such as bacteria
• Prokaryote cells are very simple, with no true nucleus or orgenells, such as Lactobacillus acidophilius
• Eukaryotes contains most living organisms, and true nucleus, surrounded by membranes
• Two types of eukaryotic cells:
  • Animal cell is rounded, no cell well or chloroplasts, and small vacuole
  • Plant cell is rectangular, and contains chlorophyll, large vacuoles, and a cell wall

Cell Parts (Organelles)

• Cell membranes control movement that separates internal and external environments ad maintains homeostasis.
• Supports structure
• Cell walls are found bacteria/fungi or plants
• Nucleus directs cells activities
• Chromosomes contain characteristics, and instructions for traits
• Nucleolus contains mRNA
• Cytoplasm is made up of hereditary that fills the cell
• Endoplasmic Reticulum moves materials
• Rough=ribosomes
• Smooth= no materials
• Ribosomes make proteins floating or rough ER
• Mitochondria is known as the powerhouse, and produces ATP.
• Golgi Bodies/Complex/Apparatus- protein 'packaging plants', moves materials in and out of the cell
• Lysosome digests fats, proteins and carbs
• Vacuoles are name based on content and are membrane sacs to maintain shape
• Plants have large and are
• Chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis.

Cell Theory

• The cell is the basic unit of all living things.
• All living organisms are comprised of one or more cells.
• All cells come from pre-existing cells through cell division.
• The fathers of Cell Theory are Mattias Schliden and Theodor Shwan
• Robert Hooke named them after cells, as they remind him of monks, and Anton van leeuwenhoek saw them alive called 'animolecules'

Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

• Prokaryotic cells: contain cell membrane, and no nucleus but DNA is free in the cytocol.
• Prokaryotic cells contained robisomes while eukaryotic cells contain organelles
• Prokaryotic cells are simple and small and can only be seen under high resolution
• Eukaryotic cells: contain, large and complex plants, animals, fungi, protists, and can be seen under low resolution

Cellular Transport

• The cell membrane functions are protection of cells and also allow things to exit and enter to maintain homeostasis. Structure is made up of phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded in membrane
• Function through: Phosphate head, and fatty acid tail
• Cell membranes are selectively permeable and have pores holes to help to isolate molecules, however they are selective

Types of Cellular Transport

• Passive transport without energy: moves randomly through molecules and structure helps to be selective Examples: diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis
• Active Transport uses energy

Types of Passive Transport

• Diffusion- movement of particles evenly space and spread out into liquid
• Facilitated diffusion- diffusion with transport proteins.
• Osmosis- passive transport of water.

Osmosis

-Occurs through selectively permeable membranes and water moves from high to low energy

Concentration

Direction of osmosis comes total solute concentration

• Hypertonic- solute > water
• Hypotonic- solute < water.
• Isotonic solute = water

Managing Water Balance

• Cell survival depends on balancing water
• Hypotonic Solution = lyses
• Isotonic Solution =Normal
• Hypertonic Solution = Shriveled (animal cell), Plasmolyzed (plant cell)

Active transport

Active proteins pumps transfer where needed. Types include:

• Protein Pumps that require energy
• Endocytosis - taking bulky material into a cell
  • "Cell Eating" is an example.
• Exocytosis - forces material out of cell with the change of using membrane.

Cell Energy

• The mitochondria creates ATP or adenosine triphosphate, and goes under cellular resperation

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis transforms light energy is transformed into chemical enrgy, and the chlorophyll found in chloroplasts traps light energy

• Sunlight helps transform into Carbon dioxide and stored energy in chloroplasts transforms to glucose
• Formula involves glucose and oxygen which needs sunlight
• Plants take carbon oxide for air

Cellular Respiration

Cellular resperation happens in Al living cells in mitochodria to create ATP

Aerobic and Anerobic Respiration

• Use sugars to make -ATP, and oxygen
• Aerobic resperation requires oxygen
• Anaerobic resperation does not require oxygen

Anerobic Resperation

Types include production of acohol, lactose, and lactic acid which builds up in muscles which cause cramps

Cell Reproduction- Division

• Cell reproduction- where all cells come from and is made up of DNA
• Why cells need to reproduce: repair and grow and maintian

Asexual V Sexual

Two ways it can occur where asexual is a single parent, and sexual needing 2 parents/EXtreme variation.

Cell Division

Cell division requires Amount of resources Enzymes, and proteins at rates determined by environment, such as bacteria dividing every 20mins

Types of Single Cell Division

• Asexual- only 1 parent: binary fisson,spores, budding and hereditary

Eukaryotic Divsion

• Is complex and uses chromosomes to mix with meiosis
• Mitosis happens to create 2 generation cells
• Meisosis creates shuffled chromosomes

4 stages to division

Interphase, Mitosis, Prophase, and cytokinesis

Steps of reproduction

1. DNA copies
2. Prophase forms and creates fiber
3. Centrioles doubled
4. Metabolizes chromosomes line up in the Middle
5. Divides chromosomes pulled apart
6. Nuclei slides and cytoplasm divides

Cancer Cells

• Cancer cells create 2 cells and skip phase checkpoints

Tumors

• Masses of form called tumers and can cause tumors or angiogenesis- where protein is release from attract vessels
• Benigh- where cell remains where they form Malignant - where signals are sent out to form avenue, and start to become immortal
• Cells break away from surrounding and form new tumors called metastasis

Meisosis and Reprouction

Meisosis is 2 parent contributing when chromosomes through zygote and forms gametes or sex cells diploid to form 4

Humam Chromosomes

Chromosomes code for a trait

• Exists with in pairs of homologous. Human cells-somatic
• Sex chromosomes such as xy, and xx
• Meiosis create unique haploid and mitosis makes identical diploid

Steps in the Cell

1. Telaphase- nucleus envelope forms
2. Meosis- used 2 create half
3. Division with meiosis

Chromosonal Mutation

Deletion- where part of chromosome left

• TransLocation- breaks off and becomes another cell Translocation- Chromosome backwards

###Karyotypes Shapes and identify chromosomes by Karyotyping genetic abnormalities, such as downsyndrome and chromosomes.

DNA

• DNA = deoxyribose nucleic acid that found in cells in all living organism
• Function by the changing all chemical changes in cells where controlle and formed and shared
• Bases made of nucleotide or deoxyribose with groups containing nitrogen or Adenine, thymine, cytosine and or guanine.
• Consist of doub strand with bases that need to pair -Bonds with weak hydrogen bonds.

Replication

Strands get seprated and new partner is added so that cell divides Then the cell divides dna which helps separate the dna with free molucles Helicase unzips dna which adds free molecules and zip

Genetic Code

A form of bases or codons and amino acids in cytoplasm and order in protein that comes with three bases called the triplet code

• DNA & Enzymes build structure and controls what cell is and creates its function through genes

Amino Acids

Steps is to build protein.

1. transcribe- Message
2. Helicase
3. Translate to ribosme

Protein Synthesis

• DNA makes MRNA in process, which carries code to cytoplasm

Translation

• MESSAGES IS TURNED TO PROTEIN,

Steps

1.MRNA moves and binds

mRNA vs DNA

• mRNA has uracil.
• is single stranded

Mutations

Changed of nucleotide sequence, of amino acids

Chromosonal

Has 5 types where there is deletion and transLocations The gene then change through copying errors or vriuses and the changes to function and protein

Frameshift mutation

Deletiong and instering can cahnge sense of amino .Protein built can be incorrect

Biotechnology

Genetic enginering and dna will mix with species EX humman insulin

####Types of Biotechnology

• Transgenic, Reproductive cloning Used to clone certain species to help stem cells

recombination

Inserted a foriegn gene called transgenic Goal- produces copies and cellls Ex- Humman insulin

• Helps reduce glands that get defects with stunted hormones
• Can produce with proteins to grow and help

restriction enzymes

Cut of sequance at plasmid by splincing together.

####translocates -

Insulin

• Golden rise
• Virus Factor VIII

Green fluorescents

Helps locate biosensors with seeds with signs the gene can announce the presence of HFP

###Clones exact genetic replica, with reaction where cells help grow Plant = potatoes Animal= no sex production SCMN needs 3 organ

• Where stem cells help regrow tissue Fights tumors and is

Undifferentiated

Cannot be toptipotent

• where they do NOT help produce sperm

DNA printing

• Gel electrophoresis = seperate size DNA after being with enzymes and has patterns
• PCR is with scientists increase dna
• Project will have increase

Environmental influences

• Phenotypes - such as colors in rabbits are result in total genetic makeup with interacting environment
• Ex arctix, foxes or himaliyans animals

Genetics Terms and punnet

Terms:

• Traits - a characteristics of an animal such as hair color
• Genes- a heridity traits that coded for a particular traits
• Allele- the form a trait
• Dominant vs recessive

7 peal plant 7 terms with factors

For each traits a indivi will have factors in production to inherit, and alternate versions to allelel Dominace- when it have the phenotype- its expressed the dominance so no obseravtions are noted Seperation- where there will separation from gamete due to independent, can be traits such as the seperation of height and color in gamete

Designer

• Alleles: form of genes and dominant
• pea plants
• Color is dominant Generation has a generation gap

Genetic test

Ration and test between crosses

Law

Is tested by ratios