Central Dogma and Key Experiments in Biology
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Questions and Answers

What role does DNA polymerase play in proofreading?

  • It corrects errors in newly synthesized DNA. (correct)
  • It initiates the transcription process.
  • It synthesizes new DNA strands.
  • It removes damaged DNA segments.

What type of mutation is primarily caused by ultraviolet (UV) light?

  • Thymine dimers (correct)
  • Translocations
  • Insertions
  • Point mutations

During RNA transcription, which direction does RNA polymerase read the template DNA strand?

  • 3'→5' (correct)
  • 5'→5'
  • 3'→3'
  • 5'→3'

What is the function of a gene's promoter?

<p>To bind RNA polymerase and help initiate transcription. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines the concept of 'homozygous'?

<p>Having two identical alleles for a gene. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the FIRST step in the PCR process?

<p>Denaturation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the function of transfer RNA (tRNA)?

<p>It carries amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a codon?

<p>A sequence of three nucleotides that encodes an amino acid. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the dideoxyribonucleotide triphosphates (ddNTPs) in DNA sequencing?

<p>To selectively terminate DNA strand elongation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of genetic marker are Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) considered?

<p>Microsatellite markers. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct sequence of information flow in cells?

<p>DNA→RNA→protein (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the Griffith Experiment?

<p>It demonstrated bacterial transformation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role did Avery, MacLeod & McCarty's experiment play in the understanding of heredity?

<p>It confirmed DNA as the hereditary material. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes Chargaff's Rules?

<p>A=T and G≠C (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a key contribution of Rosalind Franklin to the study of DNA?

<p>Providing the X-ray diffraction image known as Photo 51. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What direction does DNA polymerase synthesize the daughter DNA strand?

<p>5'→3' (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which model of DNA replication is demonstrated by the Meselson & Stahl Experiment?

<p>Semiconservative model (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the enzyme helicase in DNA replication?

<p>To unwind the DNA double helix. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is true about the lagging strand during DNA replication?

<p>It is synthesized in fragments known as Okazaki fragments. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately differentiates DNA polymerase III and DNA polymerase I in E.coli?

<p>DNA polymerase III primarily synthesizes DNA, while DNA polymerase I has a proofreading function. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes macroevolution?

<p>Large-scale evolutionary changes that occur over long periods. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of prezygotic reproductive barrier?

<p>Hybrid sterility (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which species concept focuses primarily on reproductive isolation?

<p>Biological species concept (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of allopatric speciation?

<p>A group of birds becoming isolated on an island. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes gradualism from punctuated equilibrium in evolutionary theory?

<p>Gradualism emphasizes slow, continuous change. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'virulent' refer to in the context of bacteria?

<p>Bacteria that can cause disease (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the Hershey & Chase Experiment?

<p>It showed that DNA is the genetic material in phages. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of DNA structure, what does Chargaff's Rules state?

<p>The amount of adenine equals the amount of thymine. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a key finding of the Meselson & Stahl Experiment?

<p>DNA replicates using a semiconservative model. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During DNA synthesis, what direction does DNA polymerase READ the template strand?

<p>3' to 5' (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the roles of DNA polymerase I and DNA polymerase III in E. coli?

<p>DNA polymerase III is involved in elongation of the leading strand, while DNA polymerase I replaces RNA primers. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of primase during DNA replication?

<p>To create a primer for DNA polymerase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was Rosalind Franklin's contribution to the understanding of DNA structure?

<p>Her X-ray diffraction images provided key insights into DNA's helical structure. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of nucleotide excision repair in DNA damage response?

<p>It removes and replaces damaged nucleotides. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The founder effect is a type of genetic drift that occurs under which condition?

<p>When a few individuals start a new population. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the ribosome is primarily involved in the binding of tRNA?

<p>The P site. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do stop codons function in the process of translation?

<p>They signal the termination of polypeptide synthesis. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the tRNA anticodon during translation?

<p>To bind to the mRNA codon. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of natural selection, what does stabilizing selection favor?

<p>An intermediate phenotype. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the process of denaturation in PCR?

<p>DNA strands are separated into single strands. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does UV light cause DNA damage?

<p>It induces the formation of thymine dimers. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the Human Genome Project?

<p>It identified all human genes and their functions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean that the genetic code is 'degenerate'?

<p>Most amino acids are coded by multiple codons. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following terms describes the observable traits of an organism?

<p>Phenotype. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately defines gene flow?

<p>Migration of individuals into or out of a population. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of a gene's transcription factors?

<p>They initiate the synthesis of RNA from DNA. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does microevolution refer to?

<p>Small-scale changes in allele frequencies within a population. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the five types of prezygotic reproductive barriers?

<p>Temporal isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation, ecological isolation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the difference between allopatric and sympatric speciation?

<p>Allopatric speciation occurs due to physical barriers, while sympatric speciation occurs through behavioral differences within the same environment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately differentiates postzygotic reproductive barriers?

<p>Hybrid inviability and hybrid sterility are forms of postzygotic barriers. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which species concept primarily focuses on the ability of populations to interbreed?

<p>Biological species concept (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is understood by the term hybrid zone in evolutionary biology?

<p>A geographic area where hybrid offspring are produced between two distinct species (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the Central Dogma of molecular biology?

<p>Information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the Griffith Experiment primarily demonstrate about Streptococcus pneumoniae?

<p>The rough strain can become virulent. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines the term 'virulent' in the context of bacteria?

<p>Able to cause disease (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main finding of the Hershey & Chase Experiment?

<p>DNA, not protein, is the genetic material in viruses. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes Chargaff's Rules?

<p>The amount of Adenine equals the amount of Thymine. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism was demonstrated by the Meselson & Stahl Experiment?

<p>Semi-conservative model of DNA replication. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the leading strand from the lagging strand during DNA replication?

<p>The leading strand synthesizes continuously, while the lagging strand synthesizes in fragments. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In DNA replication, which statement accurately describes the role of primase?

<p>It synthesizes a short RNA primer for DNA polymerase. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of nucleotide excision repair in cells?

<p>To repair UV-induced DNA damage (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the bottleneck effect in evolution?

<p>A loss of genetic diversity due to a population size reduction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the start codon in translation?

<p>It determines the amino acid sequence start (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions must be met for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium to occur?

<p>No mutations occur (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which scenario does natural selection favor heterozygote advantage?

<p>When environmental pressures favor both alleles (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are homologous structures, and why are they important in evolutionary biology?

<p>Anatomical features that demonstrate a common evolutionary origin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of data did the Human Genome Project primarily focus on?

<p>Complete mapping of the human DNA sequence (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves the synthesis of an RNA transcript from a DNA template?

<p>Transcription (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of ribosomes during translation?

<p>To facilitate the binding of tRNA with codons (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about exons and introns is correct?

<p>Exons are regions of coding DNA, whereas introns are non-coding regions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of selection is described as favoring intermediate phenotypes?

<p>Stabilizing selection (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the process of artificial selection exemplify evolution?

<p>By humans selectively breeding organisms for desired traits (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes biogeography?

<p>The study of species distribution in relation to geographic location (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'degenerate' refer to in the context of the genetic code?

<p>Multiple codons coding for the same amino acid (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Central Dogma

The fundamental principle describing the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. It outlines the process of transcription and translation, essential for gene expression and cellular function.

Griffith Experiment

A seminal experiment demonstrating bacterial transformation, where a harmless strain of bacteria acquired the ability to become virulent after exposure to a heat-killed virulent strain.

Transforming Agent

The substance responsible for the transfer of genetic information from one organism to another, leading to a change in the recipient organism's phenotype. This was later identified as DNA.

Avery, MacLeod & McCarty Experiment

This experiment conclusively demonstrated that DNA is the transforming agent in Griffith's experiment. They treated the heat-killed virulent bacteria with enzymes that destroyed proteins, RNA, and DNA, showing that only the destruction of DNA prevented transformation.

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Chargaff's Rules

These rules state that in DNA, the amount of adenine (A) always equals thymine (T), and the amount of guanine (G) always equals cytosine (C). This reveals the complementary base pairing in DNA.

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Photo 51

The famous X-ray diffraction image of DNA captured by Rosalind Franklin, revealing the helical structure of DNA. This crucial image played a significant role in Watson and Crick's discovery of the DNA double helix.

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Watson & Crick Model

The double helix model of DNA proposed by Watson and Crick, accurately depicting the structure of DNA with two antiparallel strands held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs.

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DNA Replication

The process by which a DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules. Essential for cell division and inheritance.

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Semiconservative Model

The correct model of DNA replication, where each new DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand. This ensures genetic continuity.

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DNA Polymerase

An enzyme essential for DNA synthesis. It catalyzes the addition of nucleotides to the growing DNA strand, ensuring accurate replication.

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DNA Polymerase Proofreading

DNA polymerase has a built-in 'quality control' mechanism where it can identify and correct any mismatched nucleotides during DNA replication.

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Mutagen

An agent that causes changes (mutations) in the DNA sequence. These changes can be spontaneous or induced by external factors like radiation or chemicals.

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UV Light Damage

UV light can cause the formation of thymine dimers, where two adjacent thymine bases in DNA stick together, disrupting the DNA structure and potentially leading to errors in replication or transcription.

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Nucleotide Excision Repair

A DNA repair mechanism that removes damaged or incorrect nucleotides from the DNA strand by cutting out the damaged section and replacing it with the correct sequence.

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Gene

A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or RNA molecule. It is the basic unit of heredity, carrying information from one generation to the next.

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Allele

A variant form of a gene, responsible for different expressions of a trait. Individuals inherit two alleles (one from each parent) for each gene.

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Transcription

The process of copying genetic information from DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA molecule then carries the genetic instructions to the ribosome for protein synthesis.

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Codon

A sequence of three nucleotide bases in mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid during protein synthesis. Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid.

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Translation

The process where the genetic code carried by mRNA is translated into a chain of amino acids, forming a protein. This occurs at the ribosome with the help of transfer RNA (tRNA).

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Hershey & Chase Experiment

A crucial experiment confirming DNA as the genetic material, using bacteriophages (viruses) to demonstrate that DNA, not protein, is injected into host bacteria during infection.

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Semiconservative DNA Replication

The model of DNA replication where each new DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand, ensuring genetic continuity.

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Who discovered DNA?

Friedrich Miescher discovered nuclein, a substance found in the nucleus of cells, which was later identified as DNA.

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What does virulent mean?

Virulent means highly infectious and capable of causing severe disease.

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Speciation

The process by which new species arise from existing species through accumulation of genetic changes over time. It involves the evolution of reproductive isolation.

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Microevolution

Evolutionary changes within a species, typically involving changes in allele frequencies. It refers to small-scale evolutionary changes occurring within a population.

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Macroevolution

Evolutionary changes above the species level, involving the origin of new taxonomic groups, such as genera, families, and phyla. It refers to major evolutionary changes that result in diversification of life.

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Biological species concept

A species concept where a species is defined as a group of populations whose members can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. This is the most widely used species concept.

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Morphological species concept

A species concept that defines a species based on its unique morphological characteristics (shape, size, etc.). This concept is based on visual differences.

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Recessive trait

A trait expressed only when two copies of the recessive allele are present.

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Homozygous

An organism with two identical alleles for a particular gene.

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Transfer RNA (tRNA)

A type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome during translation. It has an anticodon that matches a specific codon on mRNA.

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Gel electrophoresis

The process of separating DNA fragments based on their size using an electric field.

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Taq DNA polymerase

An enzyme that can withstand high temperatures and is used in PCR to copy DNA.

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Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences exponentially. It involves three key steps: denaturation, annealing, and extension.

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What is the central dogma of Molecular Biology?

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. This process occurs in two main steps: transcription and translation.

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What was the Griffith Experiment?

The Griffith Experiment showed that a harmless strain of bacteria could be transformed into a virulent strain by exposure to a heat-killed virulent strain.

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What is the transforming agent?

The transforming agent is the substance responsible for transferring genetic information from one organism to another, causing a change in the recipient organism's phenotype. It was later identified as DNA.

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Describe the Avery, MacLeod & McCarty Experiment.

The Avery, MacLeod & McCarty Experiment confirmed that DNA is the transforming agent. They treated the heat-killed virulent bacteria with enzymes that destroyed proteins, RNA, and DNA, showing that only the destruction of DNA prevented transformation.

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Why was the Hershey & Chase experiment important?

The Hershey & Chase Experiment used bacteriophages to show that DNA is the genetic material that is injected into host bacteria during infection, not protein.

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What are Chargaff's Rules?

Chargaff's Rules state that in DNA, the amount of adenine (A) always equals thymine (T), and the amount of guanine (G) always equals cytosine (C). This reveals the complementary base pairing in DNA.

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Reproductive Barriers

Reproductive barriers are mechanisms that prevent members of two different species from interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. These barriers can occur before fertilization (prezygotic) or after fertilization (postzygotic).

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DNA mutation

A change in the DNA sequence.

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Thymine dimers

A type of DNA damage caused by UV light, where two adjacent thymine bases bond together.

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Heterozygous

An organism with two different alleles for a particular gene.

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What is a gene?

A unit of inheritance; a segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or RNA molecule.

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Study Notes

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

  • Information flows from DNA to RNA to protein.
  • This is the fundamental principle of molecular biology.

Friedrich Miescher

  • Discovered nuclein (later identified as DNA).

Fred Griffith Experiment (1928)

  • Used Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria (rough and smooth strains).
  • Demonstrated transformation, where non-virulent bacteria became virulent.
  • Identified a "transforming agent" , a substance that caused the change.

Transforming Agent

  • The substance responsible for transformation in Griffith's experiment, later identified as DNA.

Avery, MacLeod & McCarty Experiment (1944)

  • Confirmed DNA as the transforming agent, not protein.
  • Used enzymes to degrade different components of bacterial extract and tested their transforming ability.

Hershey & Chase Experiment (1952)

  • Used bacteriophages (T2 phage, virus that infects bacteria)
  • Demonstrated that DNA, not protein, enters bacterial cells during infection. This is a crucial piece of evidence supporting DNA being the genetic material.

Chargaff’s Rules

  • DNA composition varies by species.
  • A=T, and G=C.

Rosalind Franklin

  • X-ray diffraction photographs (such as Photo 51) provided crucial structural information about DNA (at King's College, London).

Watson & Crick (1953)

  • Determined the double helix structure of DNA (at Cambridge University).

DNA Structure

  • Bases pair A-T and G-C.
  • DNA has 5' and 3' ends.

DNA Replication

  • Occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle.
  • Three models: Conservative, Semiconservative and Dispersive.

Meselson & Stahl Experiment (1958)

  • Used isotopes of nitrogen (light 14N and heavy 15N) to demonstrate semiconservative replication.

DNA Replication Process

  • Origin of replication: replication begins.
  • Replication bubble: region of DNA unwinding.
  • Replication forks: Y-shaped regions where DNA is unwound and replicated.
  • Direction of DNA synthesis: 5' → 3' (New DNA strand is built in this direction).

Enzymes in DNA Replication

  • DNA polymerase: replicates DNA.
  • Deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs): building blocks for DNA synthesis.
  • Topoisomerase: relieves DNA supercoiling.
  • Helicase: unwinds DNA.
  • Single-strand binding proteins (SSBPs): stabilize single-stranded DNA.
  • Primase: synthesizes RNA primers.
  • DNA polymerase III: main replication enzyme (in E. coli).
  • DNA polymerase I: replaces RNA primers with DNA (in E. coli).
  • Ligase: joins Okazaki fragments.

Leading and Lagging Strands

  • Leading strand: synthesized continuously.
  • Lagging strand: synthesized in Okazaki fragments (short segments).

DNA Repair

  • Proofreading: DNA polymerase corrects mistakes during replication.
  • Mismatch repair: corrects base pair mismatches and gaps.
  • Nucleotide excision repair: Repairs bulky DNA damage from radiation
  • Mutagens: agents that cause mutations.
  • Thymine dimers: type of DNA damage.

Gene Expression

  • Gene: segment of DNA that codes for a protein.
  • Allele: variant form of a gene.
  • Phenotype: observable characteristics.
  • Genotype: genetic makeup.
  • Dominant trait: expressed even if only one copy is present.
  • Recessive trait: expressed only if two copies are present.
  • Homozygous: having two identical alleles (e.g., PP, pp).
  • Heterozygous: having two different alleles (e.g., Pp).
  • Transcription: DNA to mRNA process.
  • Messenger RNA (mRNA): carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes.
  • Codon: 3-nucleotide sequence on mRNA.
  • RNA polymerase: synthesizes RNA using DNA as a template.
  • Promoter: region of DNA that initiates transcription.
  • Transcription factors: proteins that regulate transcription (in eukaryotes only).
  • Exons: coding regions of a eukaryotic gene.
  • Introns: non-coding regions of a eukaryotic gene.
  • Pre-mRNA: initial mRNA transcript in eukaryotes.
  • RNA processing: modification of pre-mRNA in eukaryotes.
  • Genetic code: set of rules that dictates how codons are translated into amino acids.
  • Start codon (AUG): initiates translation.
  • Stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA): terminate translation.

Translation

  • Translation: mRNA to protein process.
  • Ribosome: site of protein synthesis.
  • Transfer RNA (tRNA): carries amino acids to ribosomes.
  • Anticodon: sequence on tRNA that complements codon on mRNA.
  • Amino acid attachment site: site on tRNA where the amino acid is attached.
  • A, P, and E sites: ribosomal sites involved in translation.

DNA Technology

  • Gel electrophoresis: separates DNA fragments based on size (using agarose or polyacrylamide gels).
  • Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): amplifies DNA sequences.
  • DNA sequencing: determines the order of nucleotides in DNA.
  • Automated DNA sequencing: utilizes fluorescently labeled nucleotides for fast sequencing.
  • Human Genome Project: mapped the entire human genome.

Genetic Variation & Evolution

  • Genetic variation: differences in genes among individuals within a population.
  • Gene pool: sum of all alleles in a population.
  • Fixed allele: allele that is the only form of a gene in a population.
  • Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: a state where allele and genotype frequencies in a population remain constant from generation to generation.
  • Hardy-Weinberg equations: p + q = 1 (allele frequencies) and p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 (genotype frequencies).
  • Microevolution: evolution occurring below the species level.
  • Genetic drift: changes in allele frequencies due to chance events; founder effect and bottleneck effect.
  • Gene flow: movement of alleles between populations.
  • Natural selection: differential survival and reproduction of individuals with different traits.
  • Directional selection: favors individuals at one end of the trait spectrum.
  • Stabilizing selection: favors individuals with intermediate traits.
  • Disruptive selection: favors individuals at both extremes of the trait spectrum.
  • Balancing selection: maintains genetic diversity.
  • Sexual selection: individuals with certain traits are more likely to mate (intrasexual vs. intersexual).
  • Heterozygote advantage: heterozygotes have a higher fitness than homozygotes.

Evolution

  • Evolution: change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.
  • Descent with modification: the principle that species have descended from common ancestors over time.
  • Natural selection: the process where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

(Note: The provided text has information that was implicitly stated and didn't need to be repeated. These notes combine the existing and new information while avoiding redundancy.)

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Explore the foundational aspects of molecular biology through the central dogma and significant experiments by researchers like Griffith, Avery, and Hershey & Chase. This quiz covers the flow of genetic information and the pivotal discoveries that shaped our understanding of DNA's role. Test your knowledge of these critical milestones in biological science.

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