Cellular Structure and Functions

Cellular Structure

• Cell Membrane: Semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cell, regulates what enters and leaves the cell
• Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance inside the cell membrane, contains organelles and cytosol
• Nucleus: Control center of the cell, contains most of the cell's genetic material (DNA)
• Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for generating energy for the cell (cellular respiration)
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Network of membranous tubules and cisternae, involved in protein synthesis and transport
• Ribosomes: Small organelles found throughout the cytoplasm, responsible for protein synthesis
• Lysosomes: Membrane-bound sacs containing digestive enzymes, break down and recycle cellular waste and foreign substances
• Golgi Apparatus: Complex of flattened sacs and tubules, involved in protein modification, sorting, and packaging

Cellular Functions

• Metabolism: Conversion of energy and nutrients, involves anabolic and catabolic reactions
• Protein Synthesis: Process by which cells create proteins, involving transcription and translation
• Cell Division: Process by which cells reproduce, involving mitosis and cytokinesis
• Cell Signaling: Communication between cells, involving signaling pathways and molecular messengers
• Cell Adhesion: Interaction between cells and their environment, involving cell adhesion molecules and the extracellular matrix

Cell Types

• Prokaryotic Cells: Lack a true nucleus, found in bacteria and archaea
• Eukaryotic Cells: Possess a true nucleus, found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists
• Stem Cells: Undifferentiated cells capable of differentiating into specialized cells
• Specialized Cells: Cells that have developed specific structures and functions, e.g. nerve cells, muscle cells, epithelial cells

Cellular Structure

• Cell membrane is semi-permeable, regulating what enters and leaves the cell
• Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance inside the cell membrane, containing organelles and cytosol
• Nucleus is the control center of the cell, containing most of the cell's genetic material (DNA)
• Mitochondria are organelles responsible for generating energy for the cell through cellular respiration
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a network of membranous tubules and cisternae, involved in protein synthesis and transport
• Ribosomes are small organelles found throughout the cytoplasm, responsible for protein synthesis
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs containing digestive enzymes, breaking down and recycling cellular waste and foreign substances
• Golgi Apparatus is a complex of flattened sacs and tubules, involved in protein modification, sorting, and packaging

Cellular Functions

• Metabolism involves the conversion of energy and nutrients, including anabolic and catabolic reactions
• Protein synthesis is the process by which cells create proteins, involving transcription and translation
• Cell division is the process by which cells reproduce, involving mitosis and cytokinesis
• Cell signaling is the communication between cells, involving signaling pathways and molecular messengers
• Cell adhesion involves the interaction between cells and their environment, including cell adhesion molecules and the extracellular matrix

Cell Types

• Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus, found in bacteria and archaea
• Eukaryotic cells possess a true nucleus, found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists
• Stem cells are undifferentiated cells capable of differentiating into specialized cells
• Specialized cells have developed specific structures and functions, such as nerve cells, muscle cells, and epithelial cells

Causes of the Revolution

• Enlightenment ideas spread liberal and democratic values, emphasizing reason and individual rights
• Social and economic inequality led to resentment towards the aristocracy, with a growing gap between nobility and commoners
• Nationalist sentiment rose, with a desire for self-determination and independence

French Revolution (1789-1799)

• Storming of the Bastille marked the start of the revolution in 1789
• King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were executed
• The Reign of Terror occurred from 1793-1794
• Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power, gaining control of the French government

Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815)

• Napoleon conquered a large portion of Europe, spreading revolutionary ideas
• Coalition wars eventually led to Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo in 1815

Revolutions of 1848

• Widespread uprisings across Europe demanded liberal reforms and national unity
• Constitutional monarchies and parliamentary systems were established in several countries

Key Figures

• Maximilien Robespierre was a leading figure of the French Revolution, advocating for radical social change
• Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader who became Emperor of France, spreading revolutionary ideas through conquest
• Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian nationalist who advocated for Italian unification and liberal reforms

Consequences and Impact

• The European map was redrawn, with the rise of nation-states and the emergence of new countries
• Liberalism and nationalism grew as ideologies across Europe
• Rapid modernization and industrialization of Europe led to the growth of urban centers