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Questions and Answers
What role do NAD and FAD serve in cellular processes?
What role do NAD and FAD serve in cellular processes?
Which of the following statements about NAD+ and FAD is NOT true?
Which of the following statements about NAD+ and FAD is NOT true?
Which of the following best describes the function of electron carriers like NAD and FAD?
Which of the following best describes the function of electron carriers like NAD and FAD?
What happens to the energy harvested from electrons in biochemical processes?
What happens to the energy harvested from electrons in biochemical processes?
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How do NAD and FAD differ in their electron carrying capabilities?
How do NAD and FAD differ in their electron carrying capabilities?
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Which stage of cellular respiration generates the most ATP?
Which stage of cellular respiration generates the most ATP?
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What is the total ATP yield from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle combined?
What is the total ATP yield from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle combined?
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How is the process of metabolism primarily characterized?
How is the process of metabolism primarily characterized?
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From the total ATP produced during cellular respiration, which stage contributes the least?
From the total ATP produced during cellular respiration, which stage contributes the least?
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What is the combined ATP yield from the entire process of cellular respiration as stated?
What is the combined ATP yield from the entire process of cellular respiration as stated?
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What is the net production of ATP molecules during the glycolysis process?
What is the net production of ATP molecules during the glycolysis process?
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Where does the glycolysis pathway primarily occur within the cell?
Where does the glycolysis pathway primarily occur within the cell?
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Which compound is produced as a result of the reduction of NAD+ in glycolysis?
Which compound is produced as a result of the reduction of NAD+ in glycolysis?
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What are the end products of glycolysis?
What are the end products of glycolysis?
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Which of the following pathways can feed into glycolysis?
Which of the following pathways can feed into glycolysis?
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What primarily happens to lactose in individuals with low lactase levels?
What primarily happens to lactose in individuals with low lactase levels?
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What process directly produces ATP in glycolysis?
What process directly produces ATP in glycolysis?
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Which type of sugars can enter the preparatory stage of glycolysis?
Which type of sugars can enter the preparatory stage of glycolysis?
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What is the role of NAD+ in the glycolysis process?
What is the role of NAD+ in the glycolysis process?
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In what condition may lactose not be effectively utilized by the body?
In what condition may lactose not be effectively utilized by the body?
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What is the product formed from pyruvate in the presence of oxygen?
What is the product formed from pyruvate in the presence of oxygen?
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Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA?
Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA?
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Which of the following pathways does acetyl CoA enter after its formation?
Which of the following pathways does acetyl CoA enter after its formation?
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What does glycolysis produce that is crucial for the next metabolic stages?
What does glycolysis produce that is crucial for the next metabolic stages?
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What is another name for the Citric Acid Cycle?
What is another name for the Citric Acid Cycle?
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What high-energy electrons are harvested during the Citric Acid Cycle?
What high-energy electrons are harvested during the Citric Acid Cycle?
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What key metabolic process provides pyruvate to enter the mitochondrial pathways?
What key metabolic process provides pyruvate to enter the mitochondrial pathways?
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Which statement accurately describes the mitochondrial membrane's role in pyruvate oxidation?
Which statement accurately describes the mitochondrial membrane's role in pyruvate oxidation?
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What is the primary role of glucose in the brain and red blood cells?
What is the primary role of glucose in the brain and red blood cells?
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What compound must pyruvate be converted into before entering the Citric Acid Cycle?
What compound must pyruvate be converted into before entering the Citric Acid Cycle?
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In the context of cellular respiration, what does glucose combine with to produce energy?
In the context of cellular respiration, what does glucose combine with to produce energy?
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What provides the energy for the synthesis of ATP in the oxidation of glucose?
What provides the energy for the synthesis of ATP in the oxidation of glucose?
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When pyruvate is oxidized, which of the following is produced as a byproduct?
When pyruvate is oxidized, which of the following is produced as a byproduct?
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Which of the following is the correct equation for cellular respiration?
Which of the following is the correct equation for cellular respiration?
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What term describes the breakdown of glucose to release energy?
What term describes the breakdown of glucose to release energy?
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What is the primary storage form of glucose in the body?
What is the primary storage form of glucose in the body?
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During the process of oxidation and reduction, what happens to glucose?
During the process of oxidation and reduction, what happens to glucose?
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What happens to electrons during cellular respiration?
What happens to electrons during cellular respiration?
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What is the end product of glycolysis aside from ATP?
What is the end product of glycolysis aside from ATP?
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What is the main role of hydrogen atoms in cellular metabolism?
What is the main role of hydrogen atoms in cellular metabolism?
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Which carbohydrate component is primarily used for structural purposes in plants?
Which carbohydrate component is primarily used for structural purposes in plants?
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What do anabolic reactions require in order to occur?
What do anabolic reactions require in order to occur?
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What is the chemical formula for glucose?
What is the chemical formula for glucose?
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What is a consequence of bacteria fermenting undigested lactose in the gut?
What is a consequence of bacteria fermenting undigested lactose in the gut?
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What is the primary purpose of recycling NADH back to NAD+?
What is the primary purpose of recycling NADH back to NAD+?
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Which statement about anaerobic respiration is true?
Which statement about anaerobic respiration is true?
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What occurs during the Cori Cycle?
What occurs during the Cori Cycle?
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What is lactic acid's role when oxygen is absent?
What is lactic acid's role when oxygen is absent?
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Where does the process of gluconeogenesis mainly occur?
Where does the process of gluconeogenesis mainly occur?
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What triggers the production of lactate from pyruvate?
What triggers the production of lactate from pyruvate?
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What indicates a successful glycolytics pathway?
What indicates a successful glycolytics pathway?
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How is lactate utilized after its production during intense exercise?
How is lactate utilized after its production during intense exercise?
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What is the first stage of glycolysis primarily concerned with?
What is the first stage of glycolysis primarily concerned with?
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Which of the following statements best describes the role of NADH in metabolism?
Which of the following statements best describes the role of NADH in metabolism?
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Why can high levels of lactate become life-threatening?
Why can high levels of lactate become life-threatening?
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What significant role does the liver play in metabolism during heavy exercise?
What significant role does the liver play in metabolism during heavy exercise?
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Study Notes
Essential Biochemistry: Cellular Respiration
- Students should be able to describe cellular respiration, the function of glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, and distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Why Is Metabolism Clinically Important?
- Understanding human biochemistry through metabolism is crucial for studying ailments like hormonal imbalances (e.g., diabetes), inherited conditions (e.g., metabolic diseases), and general ageing impacts on cellular metabolism.
- Metabolic diseases, dietary deficiencies, and enzyme malfunctions can significantly affect human health.
- Harmful by-products in the body can impact blood pH and cause critical clinical issues.
- Cancer's effect on cellular metabolism is also a critical factor to consider during studies.
We Obtain "Nutrition" From Our Diet
- The digestive system, from ingestion to elimination, is a crucial part of gaining nutrition to fuel the body.
- Foods are broken down into basic components like fats, carbohydrates, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals.
- These components become the building blocks for proteins, lipids, complex sugars, and DNA, all essential for bodily functions.
- These nutrients undergo metabolism, which are chemical processes necessary for sustaining life.
Glucose is a Major Fuel Source
- Starch and glycogen are significant carbohydrate sources in the human diet.
- Complex carbohydrates are broken down into simpler forms for absorption and transportation in the bloodstream.
- Glucose is the primary fuel source for the brain and red blood cells.
- The chemical formula for glucose is C₆H₁₂O₆.
Example Molecules
- Glucose, fructose, galactose, and maltose are examples of simple sugars.
- Sucrose and lactose are disaccharides (two sugars bonded together).
Glucose: The Provider Of Cellular Energy
- Glucose is essential for energy
- Storage in the body includes glycogen and starch
- Structurally, cellulose is found in plants
- Cellular energy production depends on glucose catabolism to generate ATP.
- Catabolism is the breakdown of molecules.
- Anabolism involves building larger molecules from smaller units.
- Fuel sources (carbohydrates, fats) break down into CO2, H₂O, and useful energy.
Cellular Respiration: Oxidation Of Glucose
- The breakdown of glucose occurs in stages releasing energy in the process.
- Electrons are transferred from one molecule to another.
- Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the primary source of energy.
- The overall reaction is: Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP).
Oxidation and Reduction
- Oxidation involves the loss of electrons, releasing energy, and including adding oxygen or removing hydrogen.
- Reduction involves gaining electrons, storing energy, and including removing oxygen or adding hydrogen.
- For cellular respiration, there is both oxidation and reduction occurring with the transfer of electrons.
Redox Reaction
- Glucose is oxidised, releasing electrons, and oxygen is reduced, accepting electrons.
- Oxidation and reduction are linked during cellular respiration.
Movement Of Electrons In Biology
- Electrons in biological systems move as part of hydrogen atoms.
- In cellular processes, hydrogen is passed in hydride or proton forms.
We Need Electron carriers
- High-energy electrons from glucose breakdown need to be transported, carried, and used.
- Molecules like NAD and FAD (electron carriers) accept and donate electrons effectively in the process.
Electron Carriers: NAD+
- NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is an important coenzyme.
- Co-enzymes bind with enzymes to regulate the enzyme's activity.
- It's derived from vitamin nicotinic acid/niacin.
- NAD+ accepts two electrons from two hydrogen atoms, becoming NADH.
Example of NADH Production
- NADH generation is shown as part of the Krebs cycle.
- NADH carries high energy electrons.
Electron Carriers: FAD
- FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is derived from vitamin B2/riboflavin
- FAD is the oxidised form of FAD.
- FAD accepts electrons and hydrogen atoms, becoming FADH2.
Example of FADH2 production
- FADH2 creation is from the Krebs cycle.
- FADH2 contains high energy electrons.
ATP Is the Universal Currency of Free Energy in Biological Systems
- ATP is crucial for various cellular functions such as muscle contraction and nerve impulse generation.
- ATP hydrolysis provides energy for these functions.
- ATP contains high-energy phosphate bonds.
Hydrolysis Of ATP
- ATP is structurally unstable, due to repulsion between the ionized oxygen atoms.
- Through hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate group, ATP gets stabilised (releasing energy).
- Hydrolysis of ATP to ADP is an exergonic reaction with a negative Gibbs free energy change, and a higher product stability compared to the reactant.
ATP → ADP → AMP
- These three molecules are important for cellular energy flow.
- They are involved in different aspects of energy transfer in the body.
Overview Of Respiration
- The complete oxidation of glucose occurs in four key stages: glycolysis, pyruvate processing, citric acid cycle, and electron transport chain.
Glycolysis Is The First Stage Of Energy Production
- Glucose from the diet is converted to pyruvate (a 3 carbon molecule).
- This involves 10 enzymatic reactions (controlled by enzymes).
Glycolysis Overview
- Glycolysis has two major stages: the preparatory and the payoff stage.
- ATP is needed to proceed in the first stage.
- The payoff stage generates more ATP and releases smaller carbon molecules.
Stage 1 of Glycolysis
- The preparatory phase consumes ATP to initiate glycolysis.
- This transforms glucose to two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
Second Phase Of Glycolysis
- Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is further converted into 2 molecules of pyruvate.
- ATP is produced during this stage, and NAD+ is reduced to NADH.
ATP Generation from Stage 2 of Glycolysis
- Phosphate is transferred back to ADP, generating ATP during the final stage of glycolysis.
Glycolysis Summary
- Glycolysis takes glucose and breaks it down into 2 pyruvate molecules.
- It uses 10 steps.
- Two ATP molecules are produced via substrate level phosphorylation.
- Two NADH molecules are also generated during glycolysis.
Sugars Can Be Bound Together
- Glycogen is a polymer of glucose linked together.
- Starch is another polymer of glucose, found in plants.
Feeder Pathway For Glycolysis
- Various sugars or polysaccharides provide glucose to support glycolysis.
Metabolism and Lactose Intolerance
- Individuals with lactose intolerance lack the lactase enzyme that digests lactose.
- Undigested lactose is then fermented by gut bacteria resulting in symptoms like bloating and gas.
NAD+ Regeneration
- NADH produced during glycolysis requires regeneration (conversion to NAD+) for glycolysis to continue.
- In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic respiration produces lactate.
- In the presence of oxygen, aerobic respiration recycles NADH.
Exercise and Physical Demand Can Increase Glycolysis Rate
- Physical activity increases the demand for ATP, accelerating glycolysis.
- Feedforward stimulation might control the reaction rate.
In The Absence Of Oxygen - Anaerobic Respiration Occurs
- Without oxygen, cells produce lactate from pyruvate to regenerate NAD+.
- Lactic acid buildup from anaerobic respiration is associated with muscle cramps.
- High lactate levels can be serious.
Cori Cycle (aka Lactic Acid Cycle)
- Excess lactate produced in muscles is transported to the liver.
- The liver converts lactate to glucose, which can then be used by the body.
- This process requires energy.
When The Body Lacks Fuel It Can Make Its Own Glucose Supply
- The body can produce its own glucose (gluconeogenesis) in the liver when glucose levels are low.
Summary of Cellular Respiration Notes:
- ATP is the fundamental currency of energy in biological systems.
- Cellular respiration efficiently generates ATP through multiple steps from glucose.
- Various metabolic pathways (glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain) are interconnected to extract energy from glucose.
- Key electron carriers including NAD and FAD facilitate energy transfer during cellular respiration.
- Aerobic and anaerobic conditions affect the overall reaction to generate ATP.
- The body can produce glucose from other non-carbohydrate sources through gluconeogenesis.
Breakdown Of One Glucose: So Far
- The initial stages of cellular respiration produce 4 ATP molecules, but the majority are produced during the electron transport chain.
- Various molecules are produced in the cytoplasm and mitochondrial matrix.
So WHY Have We Been Collecting All This NADH And FADH2??
- High-energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 drive the electron transport chain.
- The electron transport chain converts high-energy electrons into a proton gradient and producing ATP.
The Enzyme 'ATP Synthase' Uses These Electrons To Make LOTS More ATP
- ATP synthase uses the proton gradient created by the ETC to generate ATP.
- ATP synthase is a critical part of ATP generation.
Metabolism of Glucose
- Glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and electron transport are crucial steps in glucose metabolism.
- Various molecules are interconverted generating ATP from glucose.
WHAT NEXT? Oxidation of Pyruvate
- Pyruvate, produced during glycolysis, is further oxidized into acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) within the mitochondrion.
- This process prepares pyruvate for the citric acid cycle.
Now The Molecules Start to Get Larger
- From pyruvate to acetyl CoA (acetyl coenzyme A).
- The molecules become more complex during cellular processes.
Acetyl COA Then Enters - The Citric Acid Cycle
- Acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle.
- The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle, is a crucial component of cellular respiration, that extracts energy from acetyl-CoA, producing CO2, NADH, and FADH2.
The Citric Acid Cycle Harvests High-energy Electrons → NADH and FADH2
- In the Citric Acid Cycle, high-energy electrons are harvested from the breakdown of glucose. The electrons are carried by NADH and FADH2, high energy molecules that produce ATP.
Citric Acid Cycle
- The citric acid cycle further degrades organic compounds.
- The cycle involves an interconnected series of reactions of acetyl coenzyme A.
Glycolysis Recap
- Glycolysis has two stages, each with specific enzymatic reactions converting glucose to pyruvate.
- ATP is necessary for the preparatory phase to proceed.
- The payoff phase generates ATP and NADH and then pyruvate is further oxidized.
Additional Topics (not directly from provided materials – but inferred):
- Metabolism: Includes complex interactions and feedback mechanisms, broader than a singular lecture.
- Diabetes: A metabolism-related disease requiring specific understanding to be contextualized properly.
- Energy: Is a fundamental need for all cellular processes, from muscle contraction to nerve impulse transmission.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the roles of NAD and FAD in cellular respiration. This quiz covers their functions, the stages of cellular respiration, and ATP production. Challenge yourself with questions about metabolic processes and energy transfer within cells.
