Campbell Bio 9+10(energy)

The process of breaking down sugars and other organic fuels without using oxygen.

A more efficient form of energy production that requires oxygen. The process involves the breakdown of glucose to release energy.

The chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons between reactants. These reactions play a vital role in energy production within the cell.

A chemical reaction where a molecule loses electrons. The molecule becomes more positive.

A chemical reaction where a molecule gains electrons. The molecule becomes more negative.

A substance that loses electrons (donates) in a redox reaction.

A substance that gains electrons in a redox reaction.

A measure of an atom’s ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond. Higher electronegativity means the atom strongly attracts electrons.

The process by which electrons move from molecules with lower electronegativity to molecules with higher electronegativity, releasing energy in the process.

A coenzyme that acts as an electron carrier in cellular respiration. It accepts electrons from glucose and carries them to the electron transport chain, where they are used to generate ATP.

Enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms (electrons and protons) from molecules like glucose during cellular respiration.

The process by which electron carriers like NADH transfer electrons to a series of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane, producing a proton gradient that is ultimately used to generate ATP.

The process of generating ATP in a process linked to the electron transport chain. It involves the movement of protons across the mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP production.

A series of chemical reactions that break down glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH.

The process where pyruvate (from glycolysis) is converted into acetyl-CoA, which then enters the citric acid cycle.

A cyclic series of chemical reactions that continue the breakdown of glucose, producing ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

The synthesis of ATP in a process directly coupled with the breakdown of glucose, such as in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. This method yields smaller amounts of ATP compared to oxidative phosphorylation.

A molecule of carbon dioxide, which is produced as a by-product of cellular respiration.

A molecule essential for various metabolic processes. It carries an acetyl group, which is used in the citric acid cycle.

A series of chemical reactions that occur in the mitochondrial matrix, oxidizing acetyl-CoA to CO2 and generating ATP, NADH, and FADH2. This is a key cycle in cellular respiration.

A reduced form of flavin adenine dinucleotide. It carries high-energy electrons from the citric acid cycle to the electron transport chain.

A series of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane that uses the energy from electron transport to create a proton gradient, powering ATP synthesis. This is the final stage of cellular respiration.

A non-protein component that attaches to proteins in the electron transport chain, aiding in enzyme function.

A protein that contains a flavin mononucleotide prosthetic group. It is a key component of the electron transport chain, accepting electrons from NADH.

A hydrophobic electron carrier in the electron transport chain. It is not a protein and can move independently within the membrane.

A type of protein that carries electrons in the electron transport chain. They contain a heme group, which is similar to the heme group in hemoglobin.

A large protein complex that uses the proton gradient created by the electron transport chain to produce ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

The process by which ATP is synthesized using the energy from a proton gradient. This is the mechanism by which ATP synthase generates ATP.

The net yield of ATP from the complete oxidation of glucose in cellular respiration, including ATP produced via substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation.

The difference in H+ concentration across the mitochondrial membrane, providing potential energy for ATP production.

A type of anaerobic respiration where electrons are transferred to pyruvate, producing ethanol as a byproduct.

The process of using electron carriers like NADH and FADH2 to transport electrons from glycolysis to the mitochondria.

The estimated amount of ATP produced per glucose molecule under ideal conditions.

A type of tissue rich in mitochondria, specialized for heat production rather than ATP synthesis.

A state of low metabolism and decreased body temperature, often exhibited by animals during winter.

The use of energy from a proton gradient to perform cellular functions, like transporting molecules across the membrane.

A metabolic process that occurs in some bacteria and muscle cells, converting pyruvate to lactate without generating CO2.

The process where amino groups are removed from amino acids to form ammonia (NH3), which can be used for synthesis or excreted as waste.

The process by which fatty acids are broken down into acetyl CoA, generating ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

Organisms that can only survive in the absence of oxygen and rely on fermentation or anaerobic respiration to produce energy.

Organisms that can survive in both the presence and absence of oxygen. They can use fermentation or aerobic respiration to produce energy.

A process of regulation that occurs when the end product of a metabolic pathway inhibits the activity of one or more of the enzymes involved in the pathway.

A process that converts pyruvate into acetyl CoA, which then enters the citric acid cycle.

A process where glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors, such as pyruvate or lactate.

The color of a pigment is determined by the wavelengths of light it reflects. If a pigment absorbs all wavelengths, it appears black.

A spectrophotometer measures how much light a pigment absorbs at different wavelengths. It shines light through a solution of the pigment and measures how much light passes through, and thus, how much light is absorbed.

A graph that shows how much light a pigment absorbs at different wavelengths. It's like a fingerprint for each pigment, showing its unique absorption pattern.

The main pigment involved in photosynthesis, it absorbs violet-blue and red light and is directly involved in the light reactions.

Pigments that help chlorophyll a absorb a wider range of light. They broaden the light spectrum available for photosynthesis.

A graph that shows how effective different colors of light are at driving photosynthesis. It reveals the best colors for plant growth.

When a pigment absorbs light energy, its electrons jump to a higher energy level. This is like moving to a higher energy floor in a building.

The process where energy absorbed by a pigment is passed from molecule to molecule until it reaches a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules in the reaction-center complex.

A collection of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor, which is the core of a photosystem.

The process by which chlorophyll a, in the reaction-center complex, transfers an electron to a primary electron acceptor, initiating the light reactions. It is also a redox reaction.

An enzyme that regulates glycolysis by controlling the rate of glucose breakdown. It is stimulated by AMP and inhibited by ATP, acting as a key control point for energy production.

An energy carrier molecule that is reduced by gaining electrons in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, providing a source of high-energy electrons for the Calvin cycle.

The site of photosynthesis in plant cells. It contains chlorophyll and is organized into stacked membranes called thylakoids.

The fluid-filled space inside the chloroplast, where the Calvin cycle takes place. It is separated from the thylakoid space by the thylakoid membrane.

The stacked membrane structures within the chloroplast where the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur. They contain chlorophyll and are separated from the stroma by the thylakoid membrane.

The space inside the thylakoid membranes, where protons accumulate during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

The process of converting light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.

The second stage of photosynthesis, where carbon dioxide is incorporated into organic molecules (sugars) using the ATP and NADPH generated in the light-dependent reactions.

The incorporation of carbon dioxide into an organic molecule. It is the first step in the Calvin cycle and is essential for carbon fixation.

A type of phosphorylation that occurs during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, where ATP is produced using the energy from a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane.

The tissue inside the leaf where most chloroplasts are found, responsible for photosynthesis.

Pores on the surface of leaves that allow the entry of carbon dioxide and the exit of oxygen during photosynthesis.

Theory proposing that chloroplasts and mitochondria were originally free-living prokaryotic organisms that were engulfed by eukaryotic cells and eventually became integrated as organelles.

In chloroplasts, electrons for the ETC come from water, while in mitochondria they come from organic molecules carried by NADH and FADH2.

Chloroplasts convert light energy into ATP, while mitochondria convert energy from food molecules into ATP.

Chloroplasts pump protons from the stroma into thylakoid space during the light-dependent reactions, while mitochondria pump protons from the matrix into the intermembrane space during oxidative phosphorylation.

In chloroplasts, ATP is synthesized as protons flow from the thylakoid space to the stroma, opposite to the direction in mitochondria where protons flow from the intermembrane space to the matrix.

The thylakoid membrane maintains a huge difference in proton concentration between the thylakoid space and the stroma, reaching a pH difference of 3, meaning a thousand-fold difference.

NADPH is produced in the stroma of chloroplasts, where the Calvin cycle takes place.

Light energy drives the electron flow from low potential energy state in water to high potential energy state in NADPH, also generating ATP.

The Calvin cycle is similar to the citric acid cycle in that it recycles materials after a full cycle, but they differ in their metabolic function.

The Calvin cycle is an anabolic process, using energy to build compounds, while the citric acid cycle is a catabolic process, breaking down compounds to produce energy.

Carbon enters the Calvin cycle as CO2 and exits in the form of a sugar, consuming ATP and being reduced by NADPH.

The sugar produced by the Calvin cycle is not glucose but a three-carbon sugar called glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P).

The Calvin cycle must complete three turns for the net synthesis of one molecule of G3P.

Rubisco, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle, is the most abundant protein in chloroplasts and potentially in the world.

Photorespiration occurs when plants bind O2 instead of CO2 during the Calvin cycle, resulting in a two-carbon product and a release of CO2. This process consumes ATP and reduces photosynthetic output.

C3 plants, a majority of plants, produce 3-phosphoglycerate after carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle. They are less efficient in hot and dry conditions due to stomatal closure, leading to reduced CO2 levels and photorespiration.

An enzyme found in mesophyll cells of C4 plants that binds CO2 with high affinity and zero O2 affinity.

A process where plants like cacti and succulents open their stomata at night and close them during the day to conserve water and prevent CO2 loss.

Specialized cells in C4 plants responsible for completing the Calvin cycle and providing a high concentration of CO2 for rubisco.

The process of transferring carbon from mesophyll cells to bundle sheath cells, ensuring efficient carbon fixation in C4 plants.

Photosystem I and Photosystem II are protein complexes located in the thylakoid membrane involved in photosynthesis. They are named in the order they were discovered (not their function).

The reaction-center complex in PS II has a chlorophyll a molecule (P680) that absorbs light best at 680 nm. This is crucial for the initial steps of electron transfer in photosynthesis.

The reaction-center complex in PS I has a chlorophyll a molecule (P700) that absorbs light best at 700 nm. This is crucial for the later steps of electron transfer in photosynthesis.

The movement of electrons through photosystems and other membrane components (like the electron transport chain) during photosynthesis.

P680+ is a strong oxidizing agent because it has lost electrons. It has a high affinity for electrons, which allows it to strip electrons from water molecules, releasing oxygen as a byproduct.

The electron carriers and ATP synthase present in mitochondria and chloroplasts share structural similarities, emphasizing their evolutionary connection.

The electron transport chain between PS II and PS I involves a series of redox reactions where electrons pass through plastoquinone (Pq), a cytochrome complex, and plastocyanin (Pc). This chain releases energy to pump protons into the thylakoid space.

Chemiosmosis is the process where ATP is synthesized using the energy from a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane. This gradient is built up during the light reactions.

Cyclic electron flow is an alternative electron pathway in photosynthesis that occurs only in PS I. Electrons cycle back to ferredoxin (Fd), then to the cytochrome complex, and finally to plastocyanin (Pc) before returning to P700 in PS I.

Cyclic electron flow is thought to be a photoprotective mechanism, preventing damage to the photosynthetic machinery under high light conditions.

Photosynthesizing bacteria that have only one photosystem depend on cyclic electron flow for ATP generation during photosynthesis. This is their only method for producing ATP.

The excited electron from P680 in PS II is passed to an electron acceptor, forming P680+. This triggers the splitting of water, releasing oxygen, two protons into the thylakoid space, and electrons to replace the lost ones in P680.

The enzyme NADP+ reductase catalyzes the transfer of electrons from ferredoxin (Fd) to NADP+, reducing it to NADPH. This process removes a proton from the stroma, which contributes to the proton gradient.

The thylakoid membrane houses two types of photosystems, PS II and PS I, which work together to capture light energy and convert it into chemical energy.

Each photosystem contains a reaction-center complex and a specific electron receiver next to a pair of chlorophyll a molecules. These components are crucial for light absorption and electron transfer.