Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the name of the single cell from which the human body develops?
What is the name of the single cell from which the human body develops?
- Cytoplasm
- Zygote (correct)
- Ovum
- Spermatozoon
What is the watery fluid enclosing the organelles in a cell called?
What is the watery fluid enclosing the organelles in a cell called?
- Cytosol (correct)
- Nucleus
- Cholesterol
- Plasma membrane
What is the function of the plasma membrane in a cell?
What is the function of the plasma membrane in a cell?
- Produces cytosol
- Regulates intracellular environment (correct)
- Encloses the nucleus
- Stores genetic make-up
What are the two components of phospholipid molecules in the plasma membrane?
What are the two components of phospholipid molecules in the plasma membrane?
Which component of the plasma membrane creates a water-repelling central layer?
Which component of the plasma membrane creates a water-repelling central layer?
What is the function of membrane proteins in the plasma membrane?
What is the function of membrane proteins in the plasma membrane?
What is the main function of the plasma membrane?
What is the main function of the plasma membrane?
What type of transport occurs when substances move down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
What type of transport occurs when substances move down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
What is facilitated diffusion?
What is facilitated diffusion?
How is active transport defined?
How is active transport defined?
What is the sodium-potassium pump responsible for?
What is the sodium-potassium pump responsible for?
Which type of protein provides mechanical support and guidance tracking for internal movement within the cell?
Which type of protein provides mechanical support and guidance tracking for internal movement within the cell?
What is the main function of microvilli in the small intestine?
What is the main function of microvilli in the small intestine?
Which structure contains a pair of centrioles and plays an important role in cell division?
Which structure contains a pair of centrioles and plays an important role in cell division?
During which phase of the cell cycle do chromosomes replicate?
During which phase of the cell cycle do chromosomes replicate?
What is the process known as when ageing cells are programmed to 'self-destruct'?
What is the process known as when ageing cells are programmed to 'self-destruct'?
What is the period between two cell divisions known as?
What is the period between two cell divisions known as?
What is the main function of cilia along the free borders of some cells?
What is the main function of cilia along the free borders of some cells?
Which type of cells line the small intestine and have microvilli for absorption?
Which type of cells line the small intestine and have microvilli for absorption?
'Go' is a phase where cells may enter a resting stage. What is the main characteristic of cells in this phase?
'Go' is a phase where cells may enter a resting stage. What is the main characteristic of cells in this phase?
What is the main function of microfilaments in a cell?
What is the main function of microfilaments in a cell?
Which ion is the principal intracellular cation?
Which ion is the principal intracellular cation?
What process is responsible for maintaining ion transport by pumping excess Na+ out of the cell in exchange for K+?
What process is responsible for maintaining ion transport by pumping excess Na+ out of the cell in exchange for K+?
Which process involves the cell membrane engulfing fluid and particles, forming a vacuum that later becomes a membrane-bound vacuole?
Which process involves the cell membrane engulfing fluid and particles, forming a vacuum that later becomes a membrane-bound vacuole?
What does the nucleus contain?
What does the nucleus contain?
Which organelle generates ATP for energy production?
Which organelle generates ATP for energy production?
What is the function of lysosomes?
What is the function of lysosomes?
What does the cytoskeleton provide within the cell?
What does the cytoskeleton provide within the cell?
What is the function of endoplasmic reticulum?
What is the function of endoplasmic reticulum?
What is the structure responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
What is the structure responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
What are ribosomes composed of?
What are ribosomes composed of?
Which ion is the principal extracellular cation?
Which ion is the principal extracellular cation?
What process involves the cell membrane engulfing larger particles, such as cell fragments, foreign materials, or microbes?
What process involves the cell membrane engulfing larger particles, such as cell fragments, foreign materials, or microbes?
What is the function of the plasma membrane in a cell?
What is the function of the plasma membrane in a cell?
What is the watery fluid enclosing the organelles in a cell called?
What is the watery fluid enclosing the organelles in a cell called?
What structure contains a pair of centrioles and plays an important role in cell division?
What structure contains a pair of centrioles and plays an important role in cell division?
What is the main function of microfilaments in a cell?
What is the main function of microfilaments in a cell?
Which organelle is involved in aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis?
Which organelle is involved in aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis?
What process involves the cell membrane engulfing larger particles like cell fragments or foreign materials?
What process involves the cell membrane engulfing larger particles like cell fragments or foreign materials?
Which component of the plasma membrane creates a water-repelling central layer?
Which component of the plasma membrane creates a water-repelling central layer?
During which phase of the cell cycle do chromosomes replicate?
During which phase of the cell cycle do chromosomes replicate?
What is the main function of cilia along the free borders of some cells?
What is the main function of cilia along the free borders of some cells?
Which ion is the principal intracellular cation?
Which ion is the principal intracellular cation?
What does the nucleus contain?
What does the nucleus contain?
What is the function of the plasma membrane in a cell?
What is the function of the plasma membrane in a cell?
What is the main function of the centrosome within a cell?
What is the main function of the centrosome within a cell?
Which structure contains microtubules and allows movement from the plasma membrane in some types of cells?
Which structure contains microtubules and allows movement from the plasma membrane in some types of cells?
What is the primary function of cilia along the free borders of some cells?
What is the primary function of cilia along the free borders of some cells?
What is the period between two cell divisions known as?
What is the period between two cell divisions known as?
What is the main function of microfilaments within a cell?
What is the main function of microfilaments within a cell?
What process results in two new genetically identical daughter cells?
What process results in two new genetically identical daughter cells?
Which component directs the organization of microtubules within a cell?
Which component directs the organization of microtubules within a cell?
Which phase involves further growth and preparation for cell division?
Which phase involves further growth and preparation for cell division?
What type of cells line the small intestine and have microvilli for absorption?
What type of cells line the small intestine and have microvilli for absorption?
What is responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
What is responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
What process involves ageing cells being programmed to 'self-destruct'?
What process involves ageing cells being programmed to 'self-destruct'?
Which component of the plasma membrane creates a water-repelling central layer?
Which component of the plasma membrane creates a water-repelling central layer?
What type of transport occurs when substances move down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
What type of transport occurs when substances move down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
What is the main function of microvilli in the small intestine?
What is the main function of microvilli in the small intestine?
What process involves the cell membrane engulfing fluid and particles, forming a vacuum that later becomes a membrane-bound vacuole?
What process involves the cell membrane engulfing fluid and particles, forming a vacuum that later becomes a membrane-bound vacuole?
What organelle generates ATP for energy production?
What organelle generates ATP for energy production?
Which ion is the principal intracellular cation?
Which ion is the principal intracellular cation?
'Go' is a phase where cells may enter a resting stage. What is the main characteristic of cells in this phase?
'Go' is a phase where cells may enter a resting stage. What is the main characteristic of cells in this phase?
What does the sodium-potassium pump maintain unequal concentrations of on either side of the plasma membrane?
What does the sodium-potassium pump maintain unequal concentrations of on either side of the plasma membrane?
What is the process known as when ageing cells are programmed to 'self-destruct'?
What is the process known as when ageing cells are programmed to 'self-destruct'?
What is the structure responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
What is the structure responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
What are ribosomes composed of?
What are ribosomes composed of?
What does the cytoskeleton provide within the cell?
What does the cytoskeleton provide within the cell?
What is the primary function of the plasma membrane in a cell?
What is the primary function of the plasma membrane in a cell?
Which component forms the structure of the plasma membrane?
Which component forms the structure of the plasma membrane?
What is the watery fluid containing organelles in a cell called?
What is the watery fluid containing organelles in a cell called?
What is the main function of the centrosome within a cell?
What is the main function of the centrosome within a cell?
Which structure is responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
Which structure is responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
What is the primary function of cilia along the free borders of some cells?
What is the primary function of cilia along the free borders of some cells?
What process involves the cell membrane engulfing larger particles, such as cell fragments, foreign materials, or microbes?
What process involves the cell membrane engulfing larger particles, such as cell fragments, foreign materials, or microbes?
What organelle generates ATP for energy production?
What organelle generates ATP for energy production?
During which phase of the cell cycle do chromosomes replicate?
During which phase of the cell cycle do chromosomes replicate?
What is the main function of microvilli in the small intestine?
What is the main function of microvilli in the small intestine?
'Go' is a phase where cells may enter a resting stage. What is the main characteristic of cells in this phase?
'Go' is a phase where cells may enter a resting stage. What is the main characteristic of cells in this phase?
What is the function of lysosomes?
What is the function of lysosomes?
Which ion is the principal extracellular cation?
Which ion is the principal extracellular cation?
Which organelle is responsible for synthesizing lipids and steroid hormones?
Which organelle is responsible for synthesizing lipids and steroid hormones?
What is the primary function of lysosomes within a cell?
What is the primary function of lysosomes within a cell?
What is the main function of the cytoskeleton in a cell?
What is the main function of the cytoskeleton in a cell?
Which ion is the principal intracellular cation?
Which ion is the principal intracellular cation?
What is the process called when the cell membrane engulfs larger particles like cell fragments or foreign materials?
What is the process called when the cell membrane engulfs larger particles like cell fragments or foreign materials?
Which structure is involved in aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis?
Which structure is involved in aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis?
What type of transport occurs when substances move down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
What type of transport occurs when substances move down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
What is the main function of the nucleus within a cell?
What is the main function of the nucleus within a cell?
What is the main function of ribosomes within a cell?
What is the main function of ribosomes within a cell?
Which phase involves further growth and preparation for cell division?
Which phase involves further growth and preparation for cell division?
What is the function of the Golgi apparatus in a cell?
What is the function of the Golgi apparatus in a cell?
Which component of the plasma membrane creates a water-repelling central layer?
Which component of the plasma membrane creates a water-repelling central layer?
What is the process called when substances move down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
What is the process called when substances move down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
What is the main function of the sodium-potassium pump in a cell?
What is the main function of the sodium-potassium pump in a cell?
What is the name of the process involving the passive movement of water down its concentration gradient across a semipermeable membrane?
What is the name of the process involving the passive movement of water down its concentration gradient across a semipermeable membrane?
What type of proteins form water-filled channels for very small, water-soluble ions to cross the membrane?
What type of proteins form water-filled channels for very small, water-soluble ions to cross the membrane?
Which process involves cells engulfing larger particles, such as cell fragments, foreign materials, or microbes?
Which process involves cells engulfing larger particles, such as cell fragments, foreign materials, or microbes?
What is the main function of facilitated diffusion in a cell?
What is the main function of facilitated diffusion in a cell?
What is the name of the essential active transport mechanism found in all cells?
What is the name of the essential active transport mechanism found in all cells?
What does passive transport involve?
What does passive transport involve?
What distinguishes facilitated diffusion from other forms of passive transport?
What distinguishes facilitated diffusion from other forms of passive transport?
What is the primary function of osmosis?
What is the primary function of osmosis?
What function do membrane proteins serve in a cell?
What function do membrane proteins serve in a cell?
What is a characteristic feature of active transport?
What is a characteristic feature of active transport?
What is the primary function of the sodium-potassium pump in a cell?
What is the primary function of the sodium-potassium pump in a cell?
What structure is involved in aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis?
What structure is involved in aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis?
What is the main function of microfilaments in a cell?
What is the main function of microfilaments in a cell?
What type of cells line the small intestine and have microvilli for absorption?
What type of cells line the small intestine and have microvilli for absorption?
What is the primary function of microfilaments in a cell?
What is the primary function of microfilaments in a cell?
Which structure is involved in aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis?
Which structure is involved in aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis?
What is the main function of cilia along the free borders of some cells?
What is the main function of cilia along the free borders of some cells?
What is the primary function of the centrosome within a cell?
What is the primary function of the centrosome within a cell?
What does passive transport involve?
What does passive transport involve?
'Go' is a phase where cells may enter a resting stage. What is the main characteristic of cells in this phase?
'Go' is a phase where cells may enter a resting stage. What is the main characteristic of cells in this phase?
What is responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
What is responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
'Go' is a phase where cells may enter a resting stage. What is the main characteristic of cells in this phase?
'Go' is a phase where cells may enter a resting stage. What is the main characteristic of cells in this phase?
What is facilitated diffusion?
What is facilitated diffusion?
What does the nucleus contain?
What does the nucleus contain?
During which phase of the cell cycle do chromosomes replicate?
During which phase of the cell cycle do chromosomes replicate?
What organelle generates ATP for energy production?
What organelle generates ATP for energy production?
Which organelle is responsible for synthesizing proteins from amino acids in a cell?
Which organelle is responsible for synthesizing proteins from amino acids in a cell?
What is the function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in a cell?
What is the function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in a cell?
Which ion is the principal extracellular cation in a cell?
Which ion is the principal extracellular cation in a cell?
What is the process known as when cells engulf larger particles like cell fragments or foreign materials?
What is the process known as when cells engulf larger particles like cell fragments or foreign materials?
What is the main function of the Golgi apparatus within a cell?
What is the main function of the Golgi apparatus within a cell?
What is the primary function of the cytoskeleton within a cell?
What is the primary function of the cytoskeleton within a cell?
Which organelle is responsible for aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis in a cell?
Which organelle is responsible for aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis in a cell?
What is the name of the process involving the movement of substances down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
What is the name of the process involving the movement of substances down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
What is the primary function of lysosomes within a cell?
What is the primary function of lysosomes within a cell?
What structure contains genetic material (DNA) and is involved in metabolic activities within a cell?
What structure contains genetic material (DNA) and is involved in metabolic activities within a cell?
During which phase of the cell cycle do chromosomes replicate?
During which phase of the cell cycle do chromosomes replicate?
What is the main function of microfilaments within a cell?
What is the main function of microfilaments within a cell?
Which type of transport involves the movement of substances up their concentration gradient using chemical energy in the form of ATP and specialized protein carrier molecules?
Which type of transport involves the movement of substances up their concentration gradient using chemical energy in the form of ATP and specialized protein carrier molecules?
What is the main function of the sodium-potassium pump in a cell?
What is the main function of the sodium-potassium pump in a cell?
What is the process called when substances move down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
What is the process called when substances move down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
Which process involves the passive movement of water down its concentration gradient towards equilibrium across a semipermeable membrane?
Which process involves the passive movement of water down its concentration gradient towards equilibrium across a semipermeable membrane?
What is the primary function of membrane proteins in the plasma membrane?
What is the primary function of membrane proteins in the plasma membrane?
What is the main function of facilitated diffusion in a cell?
What is the main function of facilitated diffusion in a cell?
What is responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
What is responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
'Go' is a phase where cells may enter a resting stage. What is the main characteristic of cells in this phase?
'Go' is a phase where cells may enter a resting stage. What is the main characteristic of cells in this phase?
Which organelle generates ATP for energy production?
Which organelle generates ATP for energy production?
What is the proportion of plasma and the cell fraction in blood?
What is the proportion of plasma and the cell fraction in blood?
How much does blood make up of body weight in a 70 kg man?
How much does blood make up of body weight in a 70 kg man?
What is the function of blood circulation?
What is the function of blood circulation?
How can blood cells and plasma be separated?
How can blood cells and plasma be separated?
What is the main function of albumin in the blood plasma?
What is the main function of albumin in the blood plasma?
Where does haemopoiesis occur in adults?
Where does haemopoiesis occur in adults?
What is the primary function of electrolytes in the blood?
What is the primary function of electrolytes in the blood?
Which substance is responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood?
Which substance is responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood?
What are platelets responsible for in the blood?
What are platelets responsible for in the blood?
Where are most blood cells formed?
Where are most blood cells formed?
What is the primary function of plasma proteins in the blood?
What is the primary function of plasma proteins in the blood?
What is the main function of red marrow in bones?
What is the main function of red marrow in bones?
What is the primary role of hormones in the blood?
What is the primary role of hormones in the blood?
Which substance is essential for maintaining acid-base balance in the blood?
Which substance is essential for maintaining acid-base balance in the blood?
What is the main function of urea, creatinine, and uric acid in the blood?
What is the main function of urea, creatinine, and uric acid in the blood?
What substance is primarily responsible for maintaining normal plasma osmotic pressure in the blood?
What substance is primarily responsible for maintaining normal plasma osmotic pressure in the blood?
What is the hormone that stimulates red blood cell production primarily in response to hypoxia?
What is the hormone that stimulates red blood cell production primarily in response to hypoxia?
What is the process called when ageing cells are programmed to 'self-destruct'?
What is the process called when ageing cells are programmed to 'self-destruct'?
Which component is responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
Which component is responsible for packaging and transporting proteins to the cell membrane for export?
What is the lifespan of red blood cells?
What is the lifespan of red blood cells?
What determines different blood groups and triggers the production of antibodies in response?
What determines different blood groups and triggers the production of antibodies in response?
What is the primary role of iron from haemoglobin after red blood cell breakdown?
What is the primary role of iron from haemoglobin after red blood cell breakdown?
Why were historical blood transfusions unsuccessful?
Why were historical blood transfusions unsuccessful?
What is the process called when substances move down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
What is the process called when substances move down their concentration gradient across the membrane without using energy?
Which type of cells line the small intestine and have microvilli for absorption?
Which type of cells line the small intestine and have microvilli for absorption?
What is the term used for the process involving cells engulfing larger particles, such as cell fragments, foreign materials, or microbes?
What is the term used for the process involving cells engulfing larger particles, such as cell fragments, foreign materials, or microbes?
What is the principal extracellular cation in a cell?
What is the principal extracellular cation in a cell?
Which blood type individuals make neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies?
Which blood type individuals make neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies?
Which white blood cells contain granules filled with toxic chemicals for eliminating parasites?
Which white blood cells contain granules filled with toxic chemicals for eliminating parasites?
Which white blood cells are attracted to areas of infection by chemotaxins and engulf and kill bacteria by phagocytosis?
Which white blood cells are attracted to areas of infection by chemotaxins and engulf and kill bacteria by phagocytosis?
Which type of cells are important for adaptive immunity?
Which type of cells are important for adaptive immunity?
Which white blood cells play a role in the immune response to allergens by releasing histamine and other chemicals?
Which white blood cells play a role in the immune response to allergens by releasing histamine and other chemicals?
What is the approximate percentage of people who are Rh-positive and do not make anti-Rh antibodies?
What is the approximate percentage of people who are Rh-positive and do not make anti-Rh antibodies?
Which white blood cells are the largest, making up about 1% of the blood volume, and contain nuclei and granules?
Which white blood cells are the largest, making up about 1% of the blood volume, and contain nuclei and granules?
Which type of blood individuals make both anti-A and anti-B antibodies?
Which type of blood individuals make both anti-A and anti-B antibodies?
What is the primary function of red blood cells?
What is the primary function of red blood cells?
What is the average lifespan of a red blood cell?
What is the average lifespan of a red blood cell?
Which vitamins are required for red blood cell synthesis and can be found in dairy products, meat, and green vegetables?
Which vitamins are required for red blood cell synthesis and can be found in dairy products, meat, and green vegetables?
What is the role of hemoglobin in red blood cells?
What is the role of hemoglobin in red blood cells?
What happens to oxyhemoglobin under low pH levels?
What happens to oxyhemoglobin under low pH levels?
What is the consequence of iron deficiency with respect to red blood cells?
What is the consequence of iron deficiency with respect to red blood cells?
What is the primary function of stem cells in red blood cell development?
What is the primary function of stem cells in red blood cell development?
How does the shape of red blood cells contribute to their function?
How does the shape of red blood cells contribute to their function?
What is the role of iron in hemoglobin?
What is the role of iron in hemoglobin?
Study Notes
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Ions: Potassium is the principal intracellular cation, sodium is the principal extracellular cation, and they tend to diffuse down their concentration gradients
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Ion transport: Maintained by constantly pumping excess Na+ out of the cell in exchange for K+
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Bulk transport: Particles too large to cross the cell membrane are taken in by pinocytosis or phagocytosis
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Pinocytosis: Cell membrane engulfs fluid and particles, forming a vacuum that later becomes a membrane-bound vacuole
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Phagocytosis: Cell membrane engulfs larger particles, such as cell fragments, foreign materials, or microbes
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Organelles: Small, specialized structures within the cytosol that include the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and cytoskeleton
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Nucleus: Contains the body's genetic material in the form of DNA, and directs all metabolic activities
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Mitochondria: Membranous, sausage-shaped structures in the cytoplasm that generate ATP for energy production
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Ribosomes: Tiny granules composed of RNA and protein that synthesize proteins using RNA as a template
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Endoplasmic reticulum: Extensive series of interconnected membranous canals that synthesize proteins, lipids, and steroid hormones
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Golgi apparatus: Consists of stacks of closely folded flattened membranous sacs that package and transport proteins to the cell membrane for export
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Lysosomes: Small membranous vesicles that contain enzymes involved in breaking down organelles and large molecules inside the cell
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Cytoskeleton: An extensive network of tiny protein fibers that provides an internal support system and guides the movement of materials around the cell interior.
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The phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane has hydrophilic heads on the outer surfaces and hydrophobic tails forming a central water-repelling layer.
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Membrane proteins provide channels for electrolytes and non-lipid soluble substances, and perform various functions such as giving cell immunological identity and serving as receptors and enzymes.
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Some membrane proteins form water-filled channels for very small, water-soluble ions to cross the membrane.
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Membrane specializes in pumps that transport substances against their concentration gradient, importing pink particles into the cell and exporting blue particles out of the cell.
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Passive transport occurs when substances move down their concentration gradient through the plasma membrane without using energy, such as water-soluble materials passing through water-filled channels and lipid-soluble materials dissolving in the lipid part of the membrane.
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Facilitated diffusion is a passive process where specialized protein carrier molecules in the membrane transfer substances, such as glucose and amino acids, by binding to specific sites on the carrier.
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Osmosis is the passive movement of water down its concentration gradient towards equilibrium across a semipermeable membrane, with waste material being extruded by the reverse process called exocytosis.
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Active transport involves transporting substances up their concentration gradient using chemical energy in the form of ATP and specialized protein carrier molecules.
-
The sodium-potassium pump, an essential active transport mechanism found in all cells, maintains unequal concentrations of sodium and potassium ions on either side of the plasma membrane and uses up to 30% of cellular ATP requirements.
-
The phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane has hydrophilic heads on the outer surfaces and hydrophobic tails forming a central water-repelling layer.
-
Membrane proteins provide channels for electrolytes and non-lipid soluble substances, and perform various functions such as giving cell immunological identity and serving as receptors and enzymes.
-
Some membrane proteins form water-filled channels for very small, water-soluble ions to cross the membrane.
-
Membrane specializes in pumps that transport substances against their concentration gradient, importing pink particles into the cell and exporting blue particles out of the cell.
-
Passive transport occurs when substances move down their concentration gradient through the plasma membrane without using energy, such as water-soluble materials passing through water-filled channels and lipid-soluble materials dissolving in the lipid part of the membrane.
-
Facilitated diffusion is a passive process where specialized protein carrier molecules in the membrane transfer substances, such as glucose and amino acids, by binding to specific sites on the carrier.
-
Osmosis is the passive movement of water down its concentration gradient towards equilibrium across a semipermeable membrane, with waste material being extruded by the reverse process called exocytosis.
-
Active transport involves transporting substances up their concentration gradient using chemical energy in the form of ATP and specialized protein carrier molecules.
-
The sodium-potassium pump, an essential active transport mechanism found in all cells, maintains unequal concentrations of sodium and potassium ions on either side of the plasma membrane and uses up to 30% of cellular ATP requirements.
-
The phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane has hydrophilic heads on the outer surfaces and hydrophobic tails forming a central water-repelling layer.
-
Membrane proteins provide channels for electrolytes and non-lipid soluble substances, and perform various functions such as giving cell immunological identity and serving as receptors and enzymes.
-
Some membrane proteins form water-filled channels for very small, water-soluble ions to cross the membrane.
-
Membrane specializes in pumps that transport substances against their concentration gradient, importing pink particles into the cell and exporting blue particles out of the cell.
-
Passive transport occurs when substances move down their concentration gradient through the plasma membrane without using energy, such as water-soluble materials passing through water-filled channels and lipid-soluble materials dissolving in the lipid part of the membrane.
-
Facilitated diffusion is a passive process where specialized protein carrier molecules in the membrane transfer substances, such as glucose and amino acids, by binding to specific sites on the carrier.
-
Osmosis is the passive movement of water down its concentration gradient towards equilibrium across a semipermeable membrane, with waste material being extruded by the reverse process called exocytosis.
-
Active transport involves transporting substances up their concentration gradient using chemical energy in the form of ATP and specialized protein carrier molecules.
-
The sodium-potassium pump, an essential active transport mechanism found in all cells, maintains unequal concentrations of sodium and potassium ions on either side of the plasma membrane and uses up to 30% of cellular ATP requirements.
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Erythropoiesis is the process of producing red blood cells (erythrocytes).
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Oxygen levels play a role in regulating erythropoiesis: when oxygen levels are low, oxygen is released to tissues, increasing demand and production of red blood cells.
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Erythropoietin (EPO) is the hormone that stimulates red blood cell production, primarily in response to hypoxia (low oxygen supply).
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Hypoxia can result from various conditions including anaemia, low blood volume, poor blood flow, reduced oxygen content of inspired air, or lung disease.
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Erythropoietin increases production of proerythroblasts and release of reticulocytes, speeding up their maturation to increase oxygen-carrying capacity.
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Erythropoiesis is a homeostatic process, with red blood cell numbers remaining constant due to production and destruction.
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Red blood cells have a lifespan of about 120 days and are broken down (haemolysis) by macrophages in the spleen, bone marrow, and liver.
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Iron from haemoglobin is reused, while biliverdin is converted to bilirubin and excreted in bile.
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Blood transfusions were historically unsuccessful due to incompatibility of blood types based on antigens (proteins) on red cell surfaces.
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Antigens (ABO and Rh) determine blood groups, with different antibodies produced in response.
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Individuals with AB blood type (approximately 55% of UK population) have neither A nor B antigens on their red cells and can receive blood from any group safely.
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Individuals with O blood type (approximately 45% of UK population) have no A or B antigens on their red cells and can donate to any group safely.
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The terms 'universal donor' and 'universal recipient' are misleading, as other antigen systems may cause incompatibility and transfusion reactions.
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Cross-matching is required before transfusion to ensure compatibility between donor and recipient bloods.
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Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are the most abundant type of blood cells, making up 99% of the total.
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They are biconcave discs with a diameter of about 7μm and no nucleus.
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Their main function is the transport of oxygen and some carbon dioxide.
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The shape of red blood cells increases their surface area for gas exchange and allows fast entry and exit of gases.
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They are flexible and lack intracellular organelles, allowing more room for hemoglobin.
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The average human body contains about 30 trillion red blood cells, with a lifespan of around 120 days.
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Red blood cell development starts with stem cells and takes about 7 days, during which they lose their nucleus and become incapable of division.
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Vitamins B12 and folic acid are required for red blood cell synthesis and are found in dairy products, meat, and green vegetables.
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Haemoglobin, a large molecule containing a protein and a pigmented iron-containing complex, allows red blood cells to carry oxygen.
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An average red blood cell carries about 280 million haemoglobin molecules, giving it an oxygen-carrying capacity of over a billion oxygen molecules.
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Iron, a necessary component of haemoglobin, is slow to absorb from the alimentary canal and can cause deficiency if losses exceed intake.
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Oxygen binds reversibly to hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin, which releases oxygen readily under certain conditions.
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Low pH levels cause oxyhemoglobin to break down and release additional oxygen for tissue use.
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Low oxygen levels (hypoxia) cause oxyhemoglobin to release more oxygen to meet the body's needs.
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Test your knowledge on the movement of potassium and sodium ions across the cell membrane and how their concentration gradients are maintained through active transport.
