Cell Movement, Classification and Taxonomy

• MOVEMENT IN AND OUT OF THE CELLS encompasses diffusion, active transport, and osmosis.

Definitions

• Diffusion: Movement of molecules/ions from high to low concentration until equilibrium occurs.
• Osmosis: Movement of water molecules from a region of high-water potential to low-water potential through a partially or semi-permeable membrane.

Classification

• Classification is the sorting of organisms into groups based on shared features.
• Biologists have identified over 1.8 million living species, with more undiscovered.
• Classification helps to identify organisms, differentiate between them and understand the diversity of life.
• Taxonomy/systematics is the general principle of classification.

Key People in Classification

• Aristotle (384-322 BC), a Greek philosopher, was the first to attempt classifying organisms.
• Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish naturalist, proposed the current classification system, forming the binomial system of nomenclature.

Hierarchy Of Classification

• Kingdom is the largest hierarchy embracing other groups
• Species is the last/smallest classification level.
• Species can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
• Living organism naming involves two names, binomial nomenclature

Binomial Nomenclature

• Recognized globally by biologists, and is defined as a system for giving two names to a living organism.
• The first name is the genus, which starts with a capital letter.
• The second name is the species, which starts with a small letter.
• Names are italicized if typed, or underlined if handwritten.

Classification Examples

• Maize Plant
  • Kingdom: Plantae
  • Division: Tracheophyta (vascular plants)
  • Superclass: Spermatophyta (seed-producing)
  • Class: Angiospermae (flowering plant)
  • Subclass: Monocotyledoneae (flowering plant)
  • Order: Graminales
  • Family: Graminacae (cereals, millets, bamboo, grasses)
  • Genus: Zea (maize plant)
  • Species: mays (cultivated maize plant)
• African Elephant
  • Kingdom: Animalia
  • Phylum: Chordata
  • Subphylum: Vertebrata
  • Class: Mammalia
  • Order: Proboscidea
  • Family: Elephantidae
  • Genus: Loxodonta
  • Species: Africana
• Human beings classification
  • Kingdom: Animalia
  • Phylum: Chordata
  • Subphylum: Vertebrata
  • Class: Mammalia
  • Order: Primate
  • Family: Hominidae
  • Genus: Homo
  • Species: Sapiens

Kingdoms

• Linnaeus placed all living things into two kingdoms: Plants/Animals.
• Modern science now includes five kingdoms:
  • Monera
  • Protista/Protoctista
  • Fungi
  • Plantae
  • Animalia

Kingdom - Monera

• Monerans are single-celled, motile/non-motile, microscopic prokaryotic organisms.
• Examples include bacteria, nostoc, and oscillatoria.
• Cyano-bacteria (blue-green algae) live in freshwater, contain chlorophyll without chloroplasts, considered to be the smallest plant.

Kingdom - Protista/Protoctista

• Protists are single-celled/unicellular eukaryotic organisms.
• They are eukaryotic and have membrane-bound organelles
• Protophyta: Plant-like protists having cellulose cell walls, containing chloroplasts with chlorophyll.
  • Examples include Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, and Diatom.
• Protozoa: Animal-like protists that feed on ready-made food and lack cellulose cell walls.
  • Examples include Amoeba, Paramecium, Plasmodium, and Chlamydia.
• Euglena viridis: Protist with both plant-like and animal-like features.

Kingdom - Fungi

• Fungi are multicellular eukaryotes lacking chloroplasts, are non-motile apart from slime mould.
• General features of fungi
  • Possess chitin cell walls and branching thread-like structures called hyphae
  • Reproduced sexually (conjugation) and asexually (spore formation)
  • Feed saprophytically (decomposition) and parasitical.
• Economic importance of fungi
  • Cause food spoilage, example mould or Rhizopus, plant or animal disease.
  • Are decomposers that improve soil fertility/recycle material.
  • Employed in the food industry for fermentation (e.g., yeast).
  • Used in pharmaceutical for the production of penicillin
  • Some mushrooms are edible
  • Examples: Rhizopus, Toadstool, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Yeast, Mushrooms, Slime mould.

Kingdom - Plantae

• All green plants belong to this kingdom.
• General Characteristics
  • They have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
  • They possess cellulose cell walls and are eukaryotic and non-motile.
• Divisions:
  • Thallophyta
  • Bryophyta
  • Tracheophyta

Divisions of Kingdom Plantae

• Thallophyta:
  • Simplest, microscopic plants like unicellular Chlamydomonas or multicellular Spirogyra.
  • Autotrophic algae that lack stems, roots, and leaves.
  • Types: brown (Phaeophyta), green (Chlorophyta), red (Rhodophyta), and golden yellow (Xanthophyta) algae.
• Bryophyta:
  • Non-vascular plants lacking xylem/phloem in damp places, with alternation; sporophytic/gametophytic generations.
  • Have chlorophyll for photosynthesis. Non-flowering and require fertilization with water.
  • Have false stems, roots and leaves.
  • Examples are mosses and liverworts.
• Tracheophyta:
  • Vascular plants containing xylem/phloem and true roots, stems/leaves containing chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
  • Store cellulose
  • Subdivided into Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta.
    • Pteridophyta:
      • Multicellular vascular green plants that are non-flowering/non-seed-producing with alternation.
      • They display sporophytic (spore-forming) and gametophytic generations.
    • Spermatophyta:
      • Multicellular seed-producing flowering vascular plants, that reproduce sexually and do not require water.
      • Divided into Gymnospermae/Angiospermae.
        • Gymnosperms:
        • Plants with "naked" seeds and lack flowers, and have cones in seed borne on special structures.
        • Vascular green plants,
        • Examples include conifers and pines.
      • Angiosperms:
        • Most complex green flowering plants, are vascular with xylem/phloem, completed flowers.
        • The seed-producing terrestrial plants that have seeds that enclosed fruits.
        • Categorized in two classes include
          • Dicotyledoneacea (Dicotyledonous)
          • Monocotyledoneacea (Monocotyledonous) -Class: Dicotyledoneacea (Dicotyledonous):
          • Bear two-seed leaves or cotyledons
          • Vascular bundles in the stem, root and leaves are arranged in a regular pattern
          • Floral parts in groups of four or five
          • Posses Leaves with net venation and a tap root system,
          • Example include Mangoes, beans, pawpaw, groundnut, and peas. -Class: Monocotyledoneacea (Monocotyledonous):
          • Bear seeds with only one cotyledon and scattered vascular bundles that lie in their stem
          • leaves have parallel venation
          • Fibrous root systems.
          • Floral parts exist in groups of three or multiples of three.
          • Maize, grasses, rice, and coconut, are good examples.

Kingdom Animalia

• All animals
• Multicellular.
• Heterotrophic or holozoic; Lacking cell walls and chloroplasts
• Classified based on body symmetry, cavity, and design.
• Divided into two groups: Invertebrata/Vertebrata.
  • Super Phylum Invertebrata (These are Animals without backbones)
  • Consists of the following phyla:
    • Phylum Porifera (Sponges)
      • Simple aquatic organisms attached to rocks and cannot move but their larval stage is motile
      • Live in colonies with asymmetrical bodies
    • Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
      • Multicellular with body walls made up of two layers ectoderm/endoderm
      • Mainly aquatic with radial symmetry and jelly-like bodies.
      • These contain tentacles and stinging cells example.
      • Examples include Jelly fish, Sea anemone, Coral, and Hydra.
    • Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)
      • Multicellular flat worms with bilateral symmetry but without body cavity or lumen
      • Made with three germ cells: ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
      • Mostly parasitic to human, hermaphrodites.
      • Examples include Tapeworm, Planaria, Liver fluke, and Blood fluke.
    • Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms)
      • Round and cylindrical but have no body cavity
      • Body made of 3 germ cells that display bilateral symmetry
      • Examples: filarial worm, they are hermaphrodites
    • Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms)
      • They possess segmented bodies
      • A True Body cavity/coelomate bodies made of cylinder
      • Some aquatic but land adapted possess mouth and anus.
      • Earthworms, leeches, and tubeworms, are examples.
    • Phylum Mollusca
      • Soft unsegmented bodies with tentacles in their heads
      • Posses a muscular foot that is adapted for crawling or burrowing also mantles
      • Some calcerous shells that give sensitivity.
      • Examples: Squid, periwinkles, snails, oysters, octopus, slug.
    • Phylum Arthropoda (Insects, Arachnids, Crustaceans, Myriapods)
      • Bodies are in segments.
      • Made of with rigid chitin exoskeletons.
      • Has jointed appendages or legs for feeding, movement, reproduction or sensory .
      • The segmented bodies divided in two/three, they are: head, thorax, or the abdomen
      • The body that contain ie 3 body layers, triploblastic.
      • They have various means of respiration eg gills, trachea, lungbook or body surface
      • Classified as crustacean, insecta, myriapoda arachnida
      • Examples: crab、 crayfish, shrimp, prawn, lobsters 、Grasshopper, Cockroach, housefly, butterfly centipede and millipede、spider, scorpion, mites, and ticks
      • Crustaceaas versus Insecta versus Arachnida versus Myriapoda
        • Crustaceas: Two divisions of body-Cephalothorax + abdomen with two pairs of antennae using five paired of jonted legs and possess gills
        • Insecta: Three divisions ie head, thorax and abdomen A pair of antennae and three pairs of jonted legs that use Trachea for respiration
        • Arachnida : Two divisions - Prosoma is opithosoma is using - none or 8 simple eyes to look with for walking on four pairs of Jonted legs using the body through booklung
        • Myriapoda: One with two divisions that possess eyes- with a par or 2 pairs of joints in each segment using Trachea, walking
    • Phylum Echinodermata (Starfish, Sea Urchins, Sea Cucumbers, Brittle Stars)
      • Dominate Marine environments with Spiny-skin.
      • The triploblastic animals posses radial symmetry but have neither head or brain with tube feet for movement
  • Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata (With backbones)
    • Vertebrates are grouped into 5 classes
      • Class Pisces: Aquatic, skin covered using fins for movement and gills using swim bladder are cold blooded
      • Class Amphibia: Can live on land and water, naked and glandula, posses three-chamber hearth that also use gills with frogs
      • Class Reptilia: Cold-blooded posses 4 chambered hearth and have oviparous with lizards reptiles
      • Class Aves: warm -blooded with feathered wings beak and hollow bones, and ovparous-domestic foll
      • Class Mammalia: warm blooded posses 4 chamber hearth but that contain glands that divide in three eg platypus

Virus Classification

• Viruses are not classified under any kingdoms,
• Can only be seen through transmission electron microscope
• Made up nucleic acid (RNA or DNA) enclosed within a protein coat.
• Virus are classified as living thing and non living thing: - Virus as a Living thing: can reproduce and their nucleic acid can be transmitted - Virus as a non-living thing: virus forms crystals and can't respire

A Dichotomous Key

• Tool to determine the identity by dividing to determine
• Organisms including trees,mammals, reptiles ,mammals and fish

Chemicals of Life

• Living cell chemical substances are inside making new cytoplasm and are gotten from food that include; water,lipids, salts, carbohydrates, proteins,vitamins and their derivatives which are all vital for life.

Carbohydrates are classified into

• Three kinds of atom: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) in 1:2:1 ratio -monosaccharides: simple carbohydrates (glucose,fructose,galactose,ribose) -(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) are simple and soluble in water
  • Disaccharides: complex molecule including sucrose
  • Polysaccharides:are in a in long chain including cellulose starch glycogen with insoluble and do.not taste sweets
  • Functiona of Carbohydratrates - Provide energy
• Used to make block of new trients and build part of the body

Lipids

• Consist of fats contain 3 different atoms carbon hydrogen and oxygen the insoluble in water that make by glyerol-molecule joined together.
• Functions of fats

Water

• made up Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms with 80% of body using to dissolve and transfer material and water to help the body.

Protein

• carbon hydrogen sulfur and nitrogen that is combined with acid that can make tissue cell that provide antbodies that can combine the used enzymes. - Function of protein : new cell,used for energy by antibody make body grow

Dna

-Chemical inherited from par ent.made up gene chroms that twisted.made of double strad twisted by Adenise Thymine Gwanise cutersers that protect.

Nutrition

• Is the ability for life thing to feel divided in Auto/Hetro -autothropic Nutritrion;are plants that and manu facture themselves and are called atrophs through photo- chemoynthesis
• heterotropic ; organisms depend direvtly by atroph that are ate called consumers

Plant nuutrition

• Photosynthesis use carbon water with sunlight called-holophly tic nutrition.
• 600,,+ +6h,co. C,,b+68,.cauboi dore water chlorosunligh, gluclose oxygen - -

Stages of Phothoynthesis -

• The. chrolophyl by solar which spirt water into hydl ions and hydrolyl called photolysis. -4hl0 —chrorphy4+l4-0H -4 - 4 -

Light —+2h2l0 + 40, • the carbon reacts to hyarogen from light - -60r, • 4n*—’ + 6h,0

Matenah Necessary Photosynthesis

• Carbn d oxide that enter the plant leaf -Water enter through roots
  • minetai dertyed by soil

Leaf structure

• Made of leaf base and stracts that water transport and
• Epidermis to sectete wax and contain chlorophyll to keep the stucture.

Chemisnthesis;

• Process non green-
• Plant use chemical energy derived inorganic materials produce their food..

Animal Nuttution

• Depend on atrophs that have the canivorous, herbirous, etc.

classes and food

• Carbohydrates:
• Rice, noodles, pasta , yam to build sugar make mono/polisacherites

protein

• Made with meats milk eggs beans

fat and oil

• butter egg yoke lard and margarine -Transfat- create during industrial

vitamins

• essenta nutrients and useful survwal.
  • Water and soluble: b/0
  • Fat + soluable a/d/r"

minerals

   - needed quantity for health

Minerals

• macronucrent potassium, oxygen iron and phosphorous - micronurcuents:z zinc
• copper molybdenum magnese

the need of water

• Aids in diggesteion and clear the bad and toxoc matenals from the food and keep at 7%
• Ronguhuges help and fibre help with the digested
• Balance Diet helps with make the body be strong with carbohydrate protein and vitamins
  -Kwashiouir: that have lack of protein causes in child that affect head and neck

Digestive Encymes

• protein nature that used the chemical change and accelerate metabolic
• characteriic ,are protein , reversible , destroyen strong acids /alkati and specife aiction.