Cell Injury and Death: Necrosis vs Apoptosis
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Questions and Answers

What primarily characterizes necrosis?

  • Cell swelling, protein denaturation, and organellar breakdown. (correct)
  • High levels of cytosolic free calcium.
  • A gradual decrease in intracellular processes.
  • Programmed cell death under physiological conditions.
  • Which factor distinguishes hypoxia from ischemia?

  • Ischemia involves denaturation of proteins.
  • Hypoxia refers to inadequate oxygenation of the blood. (correct)
  • Ischemia only occurs in aging populations.
  • Hypoxia is caused by physical trauma.
  • Which intracellular system is NOT identified as vulnerable to injury?

  • Environmental response mechanisms. (correct)
  • Cell membrane integrity.
  • Calcium regulation mechanisms.
  • Respiratory efficiency.
  • What type of agents includes viruses and tapeworms as examples?

    <p>Microbiologic agents.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a consequence of aging on cell injury?

    <p>Increased vulnerability of cells to injurious stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do ATP-dependent calcium transporters play in the cell?

    <p>Maintaining low levels of cytosolic free calcium.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about cell injury mechanisms is true?

    <p>Duration and severity influence the cell's response to injury.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nutritional factor is implicated in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis?

    <p>Diets rich in animal fat.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily characterizes cytoplasmic eosinophilia?

    <p>Cytoplasmic acidosis and loss of ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of necrosis is characterized by preservation of structural outlines of the coagulated cells?

    <p>Coagulative necrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of karyolysis in the context of necrosis?

    <p>Digestion of DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which morphological change is NOT associated with necrosis?

    <p>Increased mitochondrial biogenesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which type of necrosis does the necrotic tissue usually become liquefied due to bacterial infection?

    <p>Liquefactive necrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the nuclear changes seen mainly in apoptosis?

    <p>Pyknosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What denotes gangrenous necrosis in clinical terms?

    <p>Ischemic coagulative necrosis with superimposed infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process does NOT contribute to the morphological appearances of necrosis?

    <p>Increased cellular energy production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of hypoxia on cellular metabolism?

    <p>Reduced intracellular ATP leading to cellular swelling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following changes is associated with irreversible cellular injury?

    <p>Detachment of ribosomes and reduced protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do oxygen free radicals play in the process of cell injury?

    <p>They act as important mediators of cell death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What consequence results from ATP depletion during ischemia?

    <p>Accumulation of intracellular sodium and water influx</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which morphological change is indicative of severe irreversible injury?

    <p>Extensive damage to cellular membranes and structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of cytoskeleton disruption during irreversible injury?

    <p>Loss of ultrastructural features and cellular blebbing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism is NOT involved in the progression of irreversible injury?

    <p>Restoration of normal pH levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to ribosomes during early stages of reversible cellular injury?

    <p>They detach from rough endoplasmic reticulum reducing protein synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes fat necrosis following acute pancreatitis?

    <p>It involves the hydrolysis of triglyceride esters within fat cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following processes is NOT associated with apoptosis?

    <p>Formation of new cells in response to injury.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is least likely to initiate apoptosis?

    <p>Increase in metabolic rate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of cells undergoing apoptosis observed under H&E staining?

    <p>They show dense, eosinophilic cytoplasm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of intracellular accumulation is characterized by the production of an endogenous substance at an increased rate but with a decreased metabolic rate?

    <p>Fatty change of the liver.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What generally occurs when growth factors or hormones are withdrawn from a cell?

    <p>Initiation of apoptosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not a mechanism known to activate apoptosis?

    <p>Increased cell volume.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What most accurately describes the resultant effect of apoptosis on cellular morphology?

    <p>Cells shrink and form apoptotic bodies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily causes fatty change (steatosis) in parenchymal cells?

    <p>Defective transport and metabolism of triglycerides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ is most commonly associated with fatty change due to its parenchymal cell structure?

    <p>Liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic of cholesterol accumulation in atherosclerosis contributes to the formation of foamy cells?

    <p>Phagocytosis of lipid debris</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is associated with the accumulation of melanin in the skin?

    <p>Increased production by basal cell activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of pathological calcification, what mineral is less commonly associated with calcium salt accumulation?

    <p>Sodium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of abnormal deposit is seen in conditions associated with proteinuria?

    <p>Glycogen vacuoles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of accumulation of haemosiderin in tissues?

    <p>Systemic iron overload or excess hemoglobin breakdown</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of vacuolization is commonly linked with abnormal glucose or glycogen metabolism?

    <p>Glycogen vacuoles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Cell Injury

    • Cells strive to maintain a stable internal environment
    • When cells are exposed to stress or stimuli they can adapt to preserve their viability
    • If the cell's adaptive capacity is exceeded, cell injury results
    • Two main types of cell death: necrosis and apoptosis

    Necrosis

    • Occurs due to exposure to harmful conditions
    • Characterized by cell swelling, protein denaturation, and organelle breakdown

    Apoptosis

    • A programmed cell death that occurs under normal or physiological conditions

    Causes of Cell Injury

    • Hypoxia: Deprives cells of oxygen for aerobic respiration, a distinct condition from ischemia which also leads to hypoxic cell injury
    • Physical Agents: Trauma, temperature extremes, radiation, electric shock, and sudden atmospheric pressure changes can all injure cells
    • Chemicals and drugs: Alter membrane permeability, osmotic balance, or enzyme cofactor integrity
    • Microbiologic Agents: Range from viruses to tapeworms
    • Immunologic Reactions: The body's immune system can trigger cell injury, such as in anaphylactic reactions
    • Genetic Defects: Examples include Down syndrome and sickle cell anemia
    • Nutritional Imbalances: Protein-calorie deficiencies, vitamin deficiencies, and diets rich in animal fat can contribute to cell injury (e.g. atherosclerosis)
    • Aging: A natural process that contributes to cell deterioration

    Mechanisms of Cell Injury

    • Membrane Integrity: Disruptions in membrane integrity lead to changes in cellular ionic and osmotic homeostasis
    • Aerobic Respiration: Damage to this process severely impacts cellular energy production
    • Protein Synthesis: Disruptions in protein production can lead to functional impairments
    • Genetic Apparatus: Damage to DNA or RNA can have detrimental effects on cell function and survival
    • Calcium Homeostasis: Increased intracellular calcium levels activate enzymes that damage cells (e.g., phospholipases, proteases, ATPases, endonucleases)
    • Reactive Oxygen Species: These unstable molecules contribute significantly to cell death

    Ischemic and Hypoxic Injury

    • Reversible Injury: Initial effects on aerobic respiration result in reduced ATP, leading to calcium influx, membrane pump dysfunction, and cellular swelling
    • Irreversible Injury: Characterized by:
      • Severely damaged mitochondria
      • Extensive plasma membrane damage
      • Swelling of lysosomes
      • Reperfusion injury
      • Loss of cellular components
      • Formation of myelin figures

    Mechanisms of Irreversible Injury

    • Phospholipid Loss: Progressive loss of membrane phospholipids weakens the cell membrane
    • Cytoskeletal Damage: Protease activation and calcium influx can disrupt the structural integrity of the cell
    • Toxic Oxygen Radicals: Released during reperfusion, damaging cells further
    • Lipid Breakdown Products: Detergent-like effects on cell membranes

    Necrosis

    • Characterized by morphological changes that follow cell death in living tissue
    • Results from enzymatic digestion and protein denaturation
    • Cytoplasmic Changes: Eosinophilia, glassy appearance, vacuolation, and calcification
    • Nuclear Changes:
      • Karyolysis: Nuclear DNA digestion
      • Pyknosis: Nuclear shrinkage and increased basophilia, common in apoptosis
      • Karyorrhexis: Fragmentation of the pyknotic nucleus

    Types of Necrosis

    • Coagulative Necrosis: Preservation of the structural outlines of dead cells, most common in myocardial infarction
    • Liquefactive Necrosis: Associated with bacterial or fungal infections, characterized by the breakdown of tissue into a liquid mass, also seen in the CNS
    • Gangrenous Necrosis: Ischemic coagulative necrosis with superimposed infection, often referred to as "wet gangrene"
    • Caseous Necrosis: Associated with tuberculosis, characterized by a cheesy, white appearance microscopically consisting of amorphous granular debris
    • Fat Necrosis: Occurs in acute pancreatitis, characterized by the enzymatic destruction of fat cells

    Apoptosis

    • Programmed cell death that is responsible for cell elimination under normal and pathological conditions
    • Key characteristics:
      • Single or clustered cells with intensely eosinophilic cytoplasm
      • Condensed nuclear chromatin with well-defined masses
      • Karyorrhexis caused by endonucleases
      • Cell shrinkage, budding, and fragmentation into apoptotic bodies
      • No inflammatory response

    Initiation of Apoptosis

    • Withdrawal of growth factors or hormones: Absence of essential signals can trigger apoptosis
    • Engagement of specific receptors: Receptors like FAS and TNF can activate apoptotic pathways
    • Injury by radiation, toxins, and free radicals: These agents can damage cells leading to apoptosis
    • Intrinsic protease activation: Activation of caspases, particularly in developmental scenarios

    Intracellular Accumulations

    • Normal cells can accumulate abnormal substances in a variety of circumstances
    • Accumulations can be transient or permanent, harmful or injurious, and occur in the cytoplasm or nucleus
    • Main categories:
      • Normal endogenous substances: Produced at a normal or increased rate with inadequate metabolism, common in fatty liver disease
      • Normal or abnormal substances: Unaffected by metabolism due to genetic defects, leading to storage diseases
      • Abnormal exogenous substances: The cell lacks the machinery to metabolize or transport these substances

    Fatty Change (Steatosis)

    • Abnormal accumulation of triglycerides within parenchymal cells
    • Most often seen in the liver, but can affect other organs
    • Caused by various factors: toxins, diabetes, malnutrition, obesity, anoxia
    • Defects at any step of fatty acid entry or lipoprotein synthesis can contribute

    Cholesterol and Cholesterol Esters

    • Foamy cells: Macrophages that ingest lipid debris, accumulating cholesterol
    • Atherosclerosis: Accumulation of cholesterol and cholesterol esters in smooth muscle cells and macrophages
    • Xanthomas: Accumulation of fat within macrophages of subcutaneous connective tissues appearing as white nodules

    Proteins

    • Less common accumulations, often associated with proteinuria in glomerular diseases

    Glycogen

    • Accumulates in cases of abnormal glucose or glycogen metabolism
    • Appears as vacuoles in cells

    Pigments

    • Colored substances, either exogenous or endogenous
    • Melanin: Accumulates in epidermal cells, leading to freckles or dermal macrophage deposits
    • Hemosiderin: Iron-containing pigment, golden brown in color, accumulates in local or systemic iron overload

    Pathologic Calcification

    • Abnormal accumulation of calcium salts, often with smaller amounts of other minerals
    • Can occur in various tissues, often associated with tissue damage

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    Cell Injury PDF

    Description

    Explore the mechanisms of cell injury, including the processes of necrosis and apoptosis. This quiz covers various causes of cell injury, from hypoxia to exposure to harmful agents, emphasizing the importance of cellular homeostasis. Test your knowledge on how cells adapt to stress and the implications of cellular injury.

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