Cell Biology Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is the role of mRNA in protein synthesis?

  • It supplies amino acids directly to the ribosomes.
  • It provides the energy needed for protein synthesis.
  • It carries copies of genetic instructions from DNA to ribosomes. (correct)
  • It modifies proteins in the Golgi apparatus.

    • Which statement accurately describes the function of lysosomes?

  • They detoxify small molecules and contain oxidative enzymes.
  • They synthesize proteins and release them into the cytoplasm.
  • They transport proteins to different parts of the cell.
  • They break down larger cellular components and bacteria using digestive enzymes. (correct)

    • In which process does the ribosome play a key role?

  • Detoxification of cellular waste products.
  • Transcription of DNA into mRNA.
  • Transportation of proteins to the Golgi apparatus.
  • Translation of mRNA into amino acids to form proteins. (correct)

    • What occurs after mRNA detaches from the ribosome?

    <p>The finished protein is secreted into a transport molecule for further processing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of transport does not require energy?

    <p>Passive mediated transport that relies on concentration gradients.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes facilitated diffusion?

    <p>It involves the movement of molecules through a protein channel.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process involves the uptake of fluids into a cell?

    <p>Pinocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cellular adaptation leads to an increase in cell size without an increase in cell number?

    <p>Hypertrophy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main distinguishing feature of dysplasia compared to reversible adaptations?

    <p>It represents a non-reversible cellular adaptation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a cause of cellular injury?

    <p>Increase in cell number</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do free radicals play in the immune response?

    <p>Too few can lead to inadequate immune function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes necrosis?

    <p>Disorganized cell death resulting in cell swelling and bursting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following descriptions of active transport is accurate?

    <p>It requires energy to move substances against their gradient.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic differentiates malignant tumors from benign tumors?

    <p>Malignant tumors lack differentiation of normal cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What clinical presentation is associated with hypernatremia?

    <p>Flushed skin and restlessness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phase of cancer development is characterized by the binding of electrophilic intermediates to DNA?

    <p>Initiation phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common effect of hypokalemia on the body?

    <p>Skeletal muscle paralysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the capillary hydrostatic pressure primarily do?

    <p>Push fluid from interstitial space into blood vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a hallmark of cancer related to cell growth signaling?

    <p>RAAS pathway activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which symptom is typically linked to hyponatremia?

    <p>Lethargy and muscle cramps</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of Starlings' forces in fluid regulation?

    <p>They balance fluid exchange between capillaries and interstitial spaces.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does hypercalcemia manifest in clinical symptoms?

    <p>Cardiac arrest and bone pain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the promotion phase in cancer development involve?

    <p>Uncontrolled cell growth due to mutated DNA.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when fluid filtration exceeds reabsorption in the capillary space?

    <p>Edema formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) primarily increase blood pressure?

    <p>By increasing sodium retention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is released in response to decreased plasma volume and acts on the kidneys?

    <p>Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of angiotensin II in the body?

    <p>Constricts blood vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the release of renin from the kidneys?

    <p>Decrease in blood pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is characterized by inadequate levels of ADH?

    <p>Diabetes Insipidus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which physiological response is triggered when plasma osmolarity increases?

    <p>Thirst and fluid intake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of aldosterone in the body?

    <p>Promotes sodium and fluid retention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of mRNA in the process of transcription?

    <p>To copy DNA sequences into a complementary RNA format</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs to the finished protein after translation?

    <p>It is transported to the Golgi apparatus for modification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of peroxisomes in the cell?

    <p>To detoxify harmful molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of transport does NOT require energy from the cell?

    <p>Passive mediated transport relying on concentration gradients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do lysosomes differ from peroxisomes in their function?

    <p>Lysosomes clean up larger components, while peroxisomes detoxify molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of transport requires extra energy to move substances against a concentration gradient?

    <p>Active transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following adaptations results in the increase in the number of cells?

    <p>Hyperplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which adaptation type involves a change in the morphology of a cell into another type of normal tissue?

    <p>Metaplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of necrosis compared to apoptosis?

    <p>Necrosis involves cell swelling and bursting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can serve as a cause of cellular injury?

    <p>Genetic defects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of having too many free radicals in the body?

    <p>Enhanced immune response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cellular adaptation is classified as non-reversible?

    <p>Dysplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process involves the endocytosis of fluids in cells?

    <p>Pinocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when fluid filtration out of capillaries exceeds the reabsorption?

    <p>Edema will form.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does angiotensin II primarily affect the cardiovascular system?

    <p>Promotes constriction of blood vessels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of aldosterone in the body?

    <p>Stimulates fluid and sodium retention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism triggers the release of ADH from the posterior pituitary?

    <p>Decrease in plasma volume.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is characterized by inadequate levels of ADH?

    <p>Diabetes insipidus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the RAAS when there is a drop in blood pressure?

    <p>Release of renin from the kidney.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin I require?

    <p>Renin released from the kidneys.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When plasma osmolarity increases, what is the physiological response?

    <p>Increased ADH secretion and thirst stimulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of malignant tumors?

    <p>They lack differentiation from normal cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What symptom is associated with hyperkalemia?

    <p>Muscle weakness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which cancer development phase does DNA get altered due to carcinogen exposure?

    <p>Initiation phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of increased capillary hydrostatic pressure?

    <p>Fluid leakage into the interstitial space</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is characterized by an excess of sodium in the blood?

    <p>Hypernatremia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common clinical presentation of hypocalcemia?

    <p>Muscle cramps</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which electrolyte imbalance can lead to changes in EKG and arrhythmias?

    <p>Hypokalemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the RAAS have in fluid regulation?

    <p>Increases blood pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cell death is described as tidy and energy-dependent?

    <p>Apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition typically presents with signs of confusion and lethargy due to low sodium levels?

    <p>Hyponatremia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which vitamin is crucial for maintaining hemoglobin in a 2+ state?

    <p>Vitamin C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is characterized by a left shift in the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve?

    <p>Alkalosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the recycling of hemoglobin, what is the fate of heme after RBC disposal?

    <p>It is broken down into iron and the heme ring.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to hemoglobin during conditions of acidosis?

    <p>Hemoglobin becomes less efficient in carrying oxygen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nutrient is involved in the synthesis of the heme ring?

    <p>Pantothenic acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a hallmark characteristic of microcytic hypochromic anemia?

    <p>Insufficient hemoglobin synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about sickle cell anemia is true?

    <p>It leads to the polymerization of proteins in red blood cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common cause for normocytic normochromic anemia?

    <p>Low red blood cell production due to leukemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What results from a decrease in oxygen levels in the blood for individuals with sickle cell anemia?

    <p>RBCs change shape to become crescent-shaped.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would you expect to find in a CBC report for a person with macrocytic normochromic anemia?

    <p>Low hemoglobin levels and high mean corpuscular volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition typically leads to microcytic hypochromic anemia?

    <p>Iron deficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What symptoms are associated with sickle cell anemia?

    <p>Bilateral pain and acute chest syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the expected hematocrit levels for a healthy adult male?

    <p>40-52 percent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of EPO in the body?

    <p>It stimulates the production of red blood cells in response to low oxygen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which components are necessary for the synthesis of hemoglobin?

    <p>Iron and globin proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between plasma and serum?

    <p>Plasma contains clotting factors, serum does not.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cell line is responsible for producing red blood cells?

    <p>Myeloid cell line</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does low iron availability have on hemoglobin levels?

    <p>It causes a decrease in hemoglobin production.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which plasma protein is primarily responsible for maintaining oncotic pressure?

    <p>Albumin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the process of hemoglobin recycling?

    <p>Iron is reused in the synthesis of new hemoglobin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does a decrease in oxygen levels in the blood influence EPO production?

    <p>It stimulates an increase in EPO production.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of metabolic acidosis?

    <p>Low pH with low bicarbonate levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is likely to cause respiratory alkalosis?

    <p>Panic attacks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the diagnosis of acid-base imbalances, what does a normal anion gap indicate?

    <p>Loss of bicarbonate, typically from renal issues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What must be assessed first when interpreting a patient's acid-base status?

    <p>The patient's treatment history</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about respiratory acidosis?

    <p>It presents with low pH and high CO2 levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of copper in hemoglobin synthesis?

    <p>To transport iron from tissues to bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition leads to a right shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin disassociation curve?

    <p>High partial pressure of CO2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the heme ring during the recycling of hemoglobin?

    <p>It gets oxidized to form bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which vitamins are necessary to make the heme ring in hemoglobin?

    <p>B6 and pantothenic acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of albumin in hemoglobin recycling?

    <p>It carries heme as bilirubin to the liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What classification of anemia is characterized by normal cells and normal color?

    <p>Normocytic normochromic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these anemias results from defects in hemoglobin synthesis due to insufficient heme?

    <p>Microcytic hypochromic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common cause of macrocytic normochromic anemia?

    <p>Folate deficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key symptom of sickle cell anemia?

    <p>Bilateral pain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would you expect to see in the Complete Blood Count (CBC) report for a patient with anemia?

    <p>Decreased hemoglobin and hematocrit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of low oxygen on red blood cells in sickle cell anemia?

    <p>Causes cells to become rigid and sickle-shaped</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hemoglobin level indicates anemia in men?

    <p>Less than 13.5 g/dL</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a hallmark characteristic of sickle cell anemia?

    <p>Early death of red blood cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary deficiency associated with hemophilia A?

    <p>Deficiency in factor 8</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following substances helps inhibit platelet aggregation?

    <p>Prostaglandins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which vitamin is essential for the functionality of several coagulation factors?

    <p>Vitamin K</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of anti-thrombin III in blood coagulation?

    <p>Inactivates clotting factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the PT lab test measure concerning blood coagulation?

    <p>Time it takes for blood to clot</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between plasma and serum?

    <p>Plasma is obtained after clotting is prevented, while serum is obtained after clotting occurs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cell line is responsible for producing red blood cells?

    <p>Myeloid cell line</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is responsible for promoting the formation of red blood cells in response to low oxygen levels?

    <p>Erythropoietin (EPO)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key function of albumin found in plasma?

    <p>Maintains oncotic pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element is essential for the production of hemoglobin?

    <p>Iron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs in the kidneys when oxygen levels are detected to be low?

    <p>Increase in EPO production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which blood components are primarily produced by the lymphoid cell line?

    <p>B and T immune cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to EPO production when oxygen levels in the blood increase?

    <p>EPO production decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Protein Synthesis

    • Protein synthesis involves transcription, translation, and transportation.
    • Transcription copies a gene's DNA sequence into mRNA. mRNA carries instructions.
    • Translation: mRNA binds to ribosomes on the rough ER; tRNA brings amino acids to build the protein. mRNA detaches once the protein is complete.
    • Transportation: The Golgi apparatus modifies the finished protein, packaged into secretory vesicles for release.

    Waste Removal

    • Lysosomes and peroxisomes are responsible for cellular cleanup.
    • Peroxisomes detoxify molecules using catalase and oxidases; they contain free radicals like hydrogen peroxide.
    • Lysosomes digest larger components (organelles, bacteria, dead cells) using digestive enzymes in a low-pH environment.

    Cellular Transport

    • Passive mediated transport doesn't require energy; it moves substances with a concentration gradient.
      • Simple diffusion: movement across a membrane without protein channels.
      • Facilitated diffusion: movement across a membrane using protein channels.
    • Active transport requires energy; it moves substances against a concentration gradient.
      • The Na-K ATPase pump maintains low intracellular sodium and high potassium, opposite of extracellular concentrations.
    • Pinocytosis (fluid endocytosis) and phagocytosis are also methods of cellular transport.

    Cellular Adaptation and Injury

    • Reversible adaptations:
      • Atrophy: cell shrinkage without cell death.
      • Hypertrophy: cell enlargement.
      • Hyperplasia: increase in cell number.
      • Metaplasia: change in cell type.
    • Dysplasia: irreversible adaptation, a precursor to disease.
    • Cellular injury causes: ischemia, hypoxia, chemical agents, physical agents, infections, stressors, genetic defects, nutritional deficiencies, aging.
    • Biochemical responses to injury: Free radicals, unstable molecules that react with others, can be beneficial in moderation but cause damage in excess.
    • Apoptosis/Necrosis:
      • Necrosis: messy cell death with swelling and bursting; usually pathological; does not require energy.
      • Apoptosis: programmed cell death; tidy and controlled; requires energy.

    Neoplasia (Cancer)

    • General hallmarks of cancer: self-sufficient growth pathways (often due to oncogene mutations or tumor suppressor gene inactivation).
    • Benign vs. Malignant:
      • Benign: slow-growing, resemble normal tissue, don't invade or metastasize (often end in "-oma").
      • Malignant: variable growth rate, invade surrounding tissue, metastasize; cells are poorly differentiated.
    • Cancer spread:
      • Initiation phase: carcinogen exposure causing DNA damage.
      • Promotion phase: proliferation of cells with altered DNA, potentially leading to a neoplasm.

    Fluid Regulation

    • Electrolyte Imbalances:
      • Sodium imbalances:
        • Hypernatremia (high blood sodium): "fried salts" (flushed skin, restlessness, increased BP/fluid retention, edema, decreased urine output, dry skin, agitation, low fever, thirst, seizures).
        • Hyponatremia (low blood sodium): "salt loss" (stupor, anorexia, lethargy, tachycardia, limp muscles, orthostatic hypotension, seizures/coma, stomach cramps).
      • Potassium imbalances:
        • Hypokalemia (low blood potassium): "Ned has many strange symptoms" (nausea, EKG changes/arrhythmias, decreased reflexes/fatigue, hypotension, muscle weakness/paralysis, shallow breathing, slow GI tract).
        • Hyperkalemia (high blood potassium): "murder" (muscle weakness, urine abnormalities, respiratory distress, decreased cardiac contractility, decreased BP and HR, decreased reflexes).
      • Calcium imbalances:
        • Hypocalcemia (low blood calcium): "cahbs go numb" (cramps, anxiety/irritability, heart failure, bronchospasm/stridor, numbness/tingling/paralysis).
        • Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium): "back me" (bone pain, arrhythmias, cardiac arrest, kidney stones, muscle weakness, excessive urine output).
    • Starling's forces: govern fluid movement between capillaries and interstitial space. Interstitial hydrostatic pressure, interstitial oncotic pressure, capillary oncotic pressure, and capillary hydrostatic pressure all contribute.
    • Edema formation: Imbalances in Starling's forces (e.g., increased capillary hydrostatic pressure due to hypertension from RAAS overactivation) lead to fluid filtration exceeding reabsorption.
    • RAAS (Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System): regulates blood pressure and volume; renin release leads to angiotensin II production, causing vasoconstriction and aldosterone release (sodium and water retention).
    • ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone): produced by the pituitary gland; promotes water reabsorption by the kidneys, increasing blood volume and decreasing plasma osmolarity; deficiency causes diabetes insipidus.

    Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport

    • SPO2: Percentage of hemoglobin carrying oxygen.
    • Hemoglobin synthesis requires: Vitamin C (keeps iron in 2+ state), copper (transports iron), B6 and pantothenic acid (heme ring synthesis), folate, B12, and B2 (hemoglobin transport).
    • Hemoglobin recycling: Senescent RBCs are phagocytosed by macrophages in the spleen. Heme is broken down into iron and bilirubin. Bilirubin is processed by the liver and excreted. Iron is transported by transferrin to the bone marrow for erythropoiesis and stored in the spleen.

    Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

    • Left shift (increased hemoglobin affinity for oxygen): Alkalosis, low temperature, low partial pressure of CO2.
    • Right shift (decreased hemoglobin affinity for oxygen): Acidosis, high temperature, high partial pressure of CO2.

    Anemia Classifications

    • Normocytic normochromic: Normal cell size and color. Caused by low RBC production (bone marrow defects, crowding, leukemia, chronic disease) or increased RBC destruction (hemorrhage, hemolysis, malignancy).
    • Microcytic hypochromic: Small, pale cells. Caused by insufficient heme synthesis (chronic blood loss, iron deficiency, hemoglobin defects).
    • Macrocytic normochromic: Large cells, normal color. Caused by folate or B12 deficiency.

    Anemia CBC Findings

    • Decreased hemoglobin and hematocrit.
    • Altered RBC size and shape.
    • Hemoglobin below 13.5 g/dL (men) or 12.0 g/dL (women).
    • Hematocrit below 35-47% (women) or 40-52% (men).

    Sickle Cell Anemia

    • Autosomal recessive disorder causing defective hemoglobin (HbS).
    • HbS polymerization leads to sickled, rigid RBCs.
    • Sickled RBCs obstruct blood flow, causing pain crises, organ damage (acute chest syndrome, glomerular disease) and increased susceptibility to infections.
    • Low oxygen levels trigger sickling.

    Blood Components

    • Plasma: Liquid portion of blood (anticoagulated); contains water, proteins (albumin, globulins, clotting factors), and other solutes. Albumin maintains oncotic pressure; globulins contribute to immune defense.
    • Serum: Liquid remaining after blood clotting; lacks clotting factors.

    Hematopoiesis

    • Myeloid cell line: Produces erythrocytes (RBCs), granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils), monocytes, and platelets.
    • Lymphoid cell line: Produces lymphocytes (B cells and T cells).

    Erythropoietin (EPO)

    • Hormone produced by the kidneys that stimulates erythrocyte production.
    • Low blood oxygen levels trigger EPO release, increasing RBC production and hemoglobin levels.
    • Increased oxygen levels suppress EPO production.

    Hemoglobin Function and Production

    • Iron-containing protein in RBCs that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
    • Iron is essential for hemoglobin synthesis.
    • Hemoglobin is produced in bone marrow.
    • Recycling involves breakdown in the spleen and liver, with iron re-use.

    Anemia Classifications

    • Normocytic normochromic anemia: Normal cell size and color; caused by low RBC production (bone marrow defects, crowding, leukemia, chronic disease) or high RBC consumption (hemorrhage, hemolysis, malignancy).
    • Microcytic hypochromic anemia: Small, pale cells; due to insufficient heme and hemoglobin synthesis (iron deficiency, chronic blood loss, hemoglobin defects).
    • Macrocytic normochromic anemia: Large cells, normal color; typically caused by folate or B12 deficiency.

    Anemia Complete Blood Count (CBC) Findings

    • Decreased hemoglobin and hematocrit.
    • Altered RBC size and shape.
    • Hemoglobin <13.5 g/dL for men, <12.0 g/dL for women.
    • Hematocrit 35-47% for women, 40-52% for men.

    Sickle Cell Anemia

    • Autosomal recessive disorder; defective hemoglobin (HbS) leads to fragile, sickle-shaped RBCs.
    • Symptoms: Pain crises, edema, acute chest syndrome, glomerular disease, infections.
    • Low oxygen causes RBC sickling, clumping, and vaso-occlusion.
    • HbS is less efficient at carrying oxygen.

    Acid-Base Imbalances

    • Metabolic acidosis: Low pH, low bicarbonate; excess acid or bicarbonate loss. Anion gap helps differentiate causes (normal vs. elevated).
    • Metabolic alkalosis: High pH, high bicarbonate; loss of acid.
    • Respiratory acidosis: Low pH, high carbon dioxide; hypoventilation.
    • Respiratory alkalosis: High pH, low carbon dioxide; hyperventilation.

    Acid-Base Interpretation

    • Consider patient history.
    • Assess pH (acidosis/alkalosis).
    • Evaluate bicarbonate (high, low, normal).
    • Evaluate carbon dioxide (high, low, normal).
    • Determine if pH and abnormal values move in the same (metabolic) or opposite (respiratory) directions.
    • Anion gap (normal 12 mmol/L): Helps in diagnosing metabolic acidosis (low bicarbonate vs. high acid).

    Blood Components: Plasma vs. Serum

    • Plasma: Liquid portion of blood with anticoagulants; contains water, proteins (albumin, globulins, clotting factors), and other solutes.
    • Serum: Liquid remaining after blood clotting; lacks clotting factors.

    Myeloid vs. Lymphoid Cell Lines

    • Myeloid: Produces RBCs, WBCs (neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils), and platelets.
    • Lymphoid: Produces B and T lymphocytes.

    Erythropoietin (EPO)

    • Hormone produced by the kidneys; stimulates RBC production.
    • Low blood oxygen triggers EPO release, increasing RBCs and hemoglobin levels to improve oxygen-carrying capacity.
    • EPO production decreases when blood oxygen levels are adequate.

    Hemoglobin

    • Iron-containing protein in RBCs; carries oxygen and returns carbon dioxide.
    • Iron, vitamin C, copper, B6, pantothenic acid, folate, B12, and B2 are necessary for its synthesis.
    • RBCs are recycled in the spleen; macrophages break down heme into iron and bilirubin.
    • Iron is transported by transferrin; bilirubin is processed by the liver.
    • SpO2 reflects the percentage of hemoglobin carrying oxygen.

    Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve: Shifts

    • Left shift (increased affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen): Alkalosis, low temperature, low partial pressure of CO2.
    • Right shift (decreased affinity; oxygen release to tissues): Acidosis, high temperature.

    Hemophilia

    • Hemophilia A: Factor VIII deficiency (produced in endothelium).
    • Hemophilia B (Christmas disease): Factor IX deficiency.
    • von Willebrand factor (vWF) carries factor VIII and promotes platelet adhesion and aggregation.

    Blood Clotting: Platelets

    • Regulate blood flow to injured vessels.
    • Form platelet plugs.
    • Activate clotting cascade.
    • Initiate tissue repair.
    • Participate in clot breakdown.

    Blood Clotting: Counteractions

    • Endothelial surfaces release prostaglandins (inhibit platelet aggregation) and nitric oxide (inhibits platelet adhesion and aggregation).
    • Proteins C and S (vitamin K-dependent) inactivate clotting factors.
    • Tissue factor inhibitor and antithrombin III inhibit thrombin activity.

    Vitamin K

    • Essential for the synthesis of functional clotting factors II, VII, IX, X, and proteins C and S.
    • Obtained from diet (plants) and intestinal bacteria.

    Lab Tests

    • D-dimers: Indicate fibrinolysis (clot breakdown).
    • Prothrombin time (PT): Measures time for blood to clot.

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    Description

    Test your understanding of key concepts in cell biology, including protein synthesis, cell transport mechanisms, and cellular adaptations. This quiz covers important topics such as the role of mRNA, lysosome functions, and the characteristics of tumors and hypernatremia.

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