Cell Biology Basics

Cell Structure:
- Plasma membrane: semi-permeable, regulates transport of molecules
- Cytoplasm: jelly-like substance inside cell membrane, site of metabolic reactions
- Nucleus: contains genetic material (DNA)
- Organelles: specialized structures performing specific functions (e.g. mitochondria, ribosomes)
Cellular Processes:
- Metabolism: energy conversion and storage
- Photosynthesis: light-dependent energy conversion in plants
- Cell division: mitosis (somatic cells) and meiosis (gametes)
- Cell signaling: communication between cells through signaling pathways
Cellular Transport:
- Passive transport: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion
- Active transport: energy-dependent transport across cell membrane

Mechanisms of Evolution:
- Mutation: changes in DNA sequence
- Genetic drift: random changes in gene frequency
- Gene flow: exchange of genes between populations
- Natural selection: adaptation to environment through differential reproduction
Evidence for Evolution:
- Fossil record: chronological record of species' evolution
- Comparative anatomy: similarities and homologies between species
- Molecular biology: DNA and protein sequence similarities
- Biogeography: geographic distribution of species
Types of Evolution:
- Microevolution: changes within a species
- Macroevolution: changes between species

Mendelian Genetics:
- Laws of Inheritance: segregation, independent assortment, dominance
- Inheritance patterns: autosomal, sex-linked, polygenic
- Punnett squares: predicting genotype and phenotype probabilities
Molecular Genetics:
- DNA structure: double helix, nucleotides
- Replication: semi-conservative, complementary strands
- Transcription: RNA synthesis from DNA template
- Translation: protein synthesis from mRNA
Genetic Variation:
- Alleles: different forms of a gene
- Genotype: genetic makeup of an individual
- Phenotype: physical expression of genotype
- Epigenetics: environmental influences on gene expression

Cell Structure:
- Plasma membrane is semi-permeable, regulating transport of molecules in and out of the cell
- Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance inside the cell membrane, where metabolic reactions take place
- Nucleus contains genetic material (DNA) and is the control center of the cell
- Organelles, such as mitochondria and ribosomes, are specialized structures performing specific functions
Cellular Processes:
- Metabolism involves energy conversion and storage, with catabolic and anabolic pathways
- Photosynthesis is a light-dependent energy conversion process in plants, producing glucose and oxygen
- Cell division occurs through mitosis in somatic cells and meiosis in gametes, resulting in genetically identical or diverse cells
- Cell signaling involves communication between cells through signaling pathways, regulating various cellular activities
Cellular Transport:
- Passive transport includes diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion, moving molecules from high to low concentration
- Active transport involves energy-dependent transport of molecules across the cell membrane, moving against concentration gradients

Mechanisms of Evolution:
- Mutation is a change in the DNA sequence, resulting in genetic variation
- Genetic drift is the random change in gene frequency, leading to evolution
- Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations, increasing genetic variation
- Natural selection is the adaptation to environment through differential reproduction, favoring traits with higher fitness
Evidence for Evolution:
- Fossil record provides a chronological record of species' evolution, showing gradual changes over time
- Comparative anatomy reveals similarities and homologies between species, indicating shared ancestry
- Molecular biology demonstrates DNA and protein sequence similarities between species, supporting common descent
- Biogeography shows the geographic distribution of species, correlating with their evolutionary history
Types of Evolution:
- Microevolution is the change within a species, resulting in adaptation to local environments
- Macroevolution is the change between species, leading to the formation of new species and higher taxonomic groups

Mendelian Genetics:
- Laws of Inheritance dictate segregation, independent assortment, and dominance of alleles
- Inheritance patterns include autosomal, sex-linked, and polygenic traits, influencing phenotype
- Punnett squares predict genotype and phenotype probabilities, helping to understand inheritance patterns
Molecular Genetics:
- DNA structure is a double helix, composed of nucleotides with sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous bases
- Replication involves semi-conservative synthesis, producing complementary strands
- Transcription involves RNA synthesis from DNA template, generating a complementary RNA molecule
- Translation involves protein synthesis from mRNA, using the genetic code to assemble amino acids
Genetic Variation:
- Alleles are different forms of a gene, leading to genetic variation and differences in phenotype
- Genotype is the genetic makeup of an individual, determining their traits and characteristics
- Phenotype is the physical expression of genotype, influenced by environmental and genetic factors
- Epigenetics involves environmental influences on gene expression, affecting phenotype without changing the DNA sequence