Cell Biology and Genetics Overview

Cell Theory: All living organisms are composed of cells; the cell is the basic unit of life; all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic:
- Prokaryotic: No nucleus, smaller, simpler (e.g., bacteria).
- Eukaryotic: Nucleus present, larger, more complex (e.g., plants, animals).
Cell Organelles:
- Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).
- Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell; energy production (ATP).
- Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum: Smooth (lipid synthesis) and rough (protein synthesis).
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.

DNA Structure: Double helix, composed of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine).
Gene Expression: The process through which information from a gene is used to synthesize functional gene products (usually proteins).
Mendelian Genetics:
- Laws of Segregation: Alleles segregate during gamete formation.
- Laws of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits segregate independently.

Natural Selection: Process where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce.
Speciation: Formation of new and distinct species through evolution.
Common Descent: All living organisms share a common ancestor.

Ecosystems: Communities of living organisms interacting with their environment.
Food Chains/Webs: Energy flow through ecosystems; producers (plants), consumers (herbivores, carnivores), and decomposers (fungi, bacteria).
Biomes: Large ecological areas with distinct climates and species (e.g., tundra, rainforest, desert).

Organ Systems:
- Circulatory: Transports blood, nutrients, gases.
- Respiratory: Gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide).
- Digestive: Breaks down food, absorbs nutrients.
- Nervous: Processes sensory information, coordinates responses.
Homeostasis: Regulation of internal conditions (temperature, pH) to maintain a stable environment.

Bacteria: Single-celled prokaryotes; can be beneficial (gut flora) or pathogenic (cause disease).
Viruses: Non-living entities that require a host cell to replicate; can cause diseases.
Fungi: Eukaryotic organisms; include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms; can be decomposers or pathogens.

Genetic Engineering: Manipulation of an organism's DNA to achieve desired traits.
CRISPR: A technique for editing genes with precision.
Biopharmaceuticals: Medications produced using biotechnology, often involving recombinant DNA technology.

Photosynthesis: Process by which plants convert sunlight into energy (glucose); occurs in chloroplasts.
Plant Structures:
- Roots: Absorption of water and nutrients.
- Stems: Support and transport of nutrients and water.
- Leaves: Main site of photosynthesis.

Homeostasis: Maintenance of stable internal conditions despite external changes.
Reproductive Strategies:
- Asexual: Single organism reproduces (e.g., binary fission).
- Sexual: Combination of genetic material from two parents.
Behavioral Ecology: Study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressures.

Cell Theory: All living organisms are made of cells; they serve as the fundamental unit of life; new cells form from existing ones.
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells:
- Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and are generally smaller and simpler, exemplified by bacteria.
- Eukaryotic cells have a distinct nucleus, are larger, and more complex, represented by plants and animals.
Cell Organelles:
- Nucleus: Houses DNA, controlling cell activities.
- Mitochondria: Often called the powerhouse, they produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for energy.
- Ribosomes: Responsible for synthesizing proteins from amino acids.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum: Comprises smooth ER (lipid synthesis) and rough ER (protein synthesis).
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion or use within the cell.

DNA Structure: Consists of a double helix structure, made of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine).
Gene Expression: Refers to the process where a gene's information is employed to create functional products, predominantly proteins.
Mendelian Genetics:
- Laws of Segregation: During gamete formation, alleles for different traits separate into distinct gametes.
- Laws of Independent Assortment: Different genes independently segregate from one another when reproductive cells form.

Natural Selection: Mechanism by which favorable traits become more common in successive generations, enhancing survival and reproduction.
Speciation: The evolutionary process resulting in the emergence of new species.
Common Descent: Theory proposing that all living organisms have emerged from a shared ancestor over time.

Ecosystems: Comprise interactions among living organisms and their physical environment.
Food Chains/Webs: Describe the flow of energy through ecosystems, categorizing organisms into producers (plants), consumers (herbivores and carnivores), and decomposers (fungi and bacteria).
Biomes: Large geographical areas defined by specific climate and vegetation types, such as tundra, rainforest, and desert.

Organ Systems:
- Circulatory System: Circulates blood, nutrients, and gases throughout the body.
- Respiratory System: Facilitates the exchange of gases, particularly oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- Digestive System: Responsible for food breakdown and nutrient absorption.
- Nervous System: Coordinates sensory input and bodily responses.
Homeostasis: The process through which the body maintains stable internal conditions (e.g., temperature, pH).

Bacteria: Single-celled organisms that can have beneficial roles (such as gut flora) or cause diseases (pathogens).
Viruses: Acellular entities that cannot reproduce independently and depend on a host cell for replication; often pathogenic.
Fungi: Eukaryotic organisms that include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms, playing roles as decomposers or pathogens.

Genetic Engineering: Techniques used to modify an organism's DNA to exhibit desired traits.
CRISPR: Advanced technology that enables precise gene editing, allowing for targeted modifications.
Biopharmaceuticals: Medicines produced through biotechnology, often involving the use of recombinant DNA technologies.

Photosynthesis: Process in which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose) in chloroplasts.
Plant Structures:
- Roots: Function in absorbing water and nutrients from the soil.
- Stems: Provide structural support and facilitate the transport of nutrients and water.
- Leaves: Primary site for photosynthesis processes.

Homeostasis: Essential for maintaining stable internal environments in response to external changes.
Reproductive Strategies:
- Asexual Reproduction: Involves a single organism producing offspring (e.g., binary fission).
- Sexual Reproduction: Involves the combination of genetic material from two parents, resulting in genetic diversity.
Behavioral Ecology: Examines the evolutionary factors that influence animal behaviors based on ecological pressures.