Career Paths in Social Studies

Career and Entrepreneurial Opportunities in Social Studies

• Social studies includes history, geography, and citizenship.
• It provides career and entrepreneurial opportunities in different fields.
• Careers are occupations for a significant period of life with opportunities for progress.
• Entrepreneurship involves setting up a business or taking financial risks for profit.

Importance of Social Studies for Personal Development and Service to Humanity

• Social studies prepares learners for various career pathways.
• Learners utilize resources for entrepreneurial projects.
• Learning political development and governance exposes learners to different styles of leadership.
• Understanding systems of government enables learners to make informed decisions for the community's benefit.
• Historical understanding shapes learners' futures.
• Social studies encourages appreciation of different cultures, values, and traditions.
• Learners integrate key aspects of the constitution, such as integrity, in governance decisions.
• Learning about democracy, rule of law, and responsible citizenry helps learners live harmoniously.
• Skills and knowledge in personality, human identity, and personal well-being promote personal growth and development.
• Research skills equip learners with data collection, analysis, and presentation skills to solve societal problems.

Importance of Social Studies

• Personal development helps one understand the real world.
• Service to humanity helps utilize available resources.
• Helps us become good citizens and appreciate and relate well with others.
• Helps us stay informed about current affairs.

Career Opportunities Related to Social Studies

• Law: Advocate, Lawyer
• Geology
• Museology
• Cartography
• Urban planning
• Meteorology and climatology
• Aviation
• Archaeology
• Medicine
• Teaching
• Survey
• Engineering
• Geography includes land economics.
• History includes archaeology.
• Citizenship includes public administrator.

Entrepreneurial Opportunities for Social Studies

• Pottery
• Basketry
• Ecotourism
• Horticulture
• Agroforestry
• Fishing
• Dairy farming

Gender Stereotypes Associated with Career Choices and Entrepreneurial Opportunities in Social Studies

• Gender is the state of being male or female concerning social and cultural roles.
• Stereotypes are fixed ideas or images that assume how a person behaves.
• Stereotypes limit aspirations, development, and create gender differences.
• Use Appropriate strategies to address gender differences.
• A strategy is a plan or method of dealing with an issue.
• Encourage both males and females to pursue a full range of careers and business opportunities.
• Ensure representation of both genders in leadership.
• Treat both males and females equally using texts and circulars that promote gender balance.
• Develop policies, laws, and decision-making processes representing both males and females.

Recognizing Biological Differences Without Stereotypes

• Biological differences between male and female people exist.
• Biological differences should not hinder career choices or entrepreneurial opportunities.
• Both male and female should have equal opportunities to pursue their dreams.
• Demonstrate respect for one's gender identity in social studies careers and entrepreneurial opportunities.

Natural and Historic Built Environment in Africa

• A map represents the earth or part of it on a flat surface.

Position of Africa

• Africa lies between latitude 37°N and 35°S and longitude 18°W and 52°E.
• Separated by water from all continents except where it joins Asia.
• The most easterly point is called Ras Hafun (Cape Guardafui).
• The most westerly point is Cape Verde.
• The most northerly point is Cape Bon.
• The most southerly point is Cape Agulhas.
• Africa is connected to the Sinai Peninsula by the Suez Canal.
• Separated from Spain by the Strait of Gibraltar.
• Separated from Arabia by the Strait of Bab el-Mandeb.

Shape and Size of Africa

• The northern half of Africa is wide, while the southern half is narrower.
• Cape Guardafui extends outwards in the shape of a horn.
• Africa is the second-largest continent.
• Africa has an area of about 30.3 million square kilometers, representing 20% of the total land surface.
• Africa measures 8000 km from north to south and 7400 km from east to west.
• Asia covers 43,608,000 km².
• Africa covers 30,335,000 km².
• North America covers 25,349,000 km².
• South America covers 17,611,000 km².
• Antarctica covers 13,340,000 km².
• Europe covers 10,498,000 km².
• Australia covers 8,923,000 km².

Countries that Make Up the African Continent

• Africa has a total of 55 countries.
• Algeria has an area of 2,381,741 km².
• Angola has an area of 1,246,700 km².
• Benin has an area of 115,773 km².
• Botswana has an area of 600,372 km².
• Burkina Faso has an area of 274,200 km².
• Burundi has an area of 28,490 km².
• Cameroon has an area of 475,900 km².
• Cape Verde has an area of 7,275 km².
• Central Africa Republic has an area of 622,984 km².
• Chad has an area of 1,284,000 km².
• Comoros has an area of 2,117 km².
• Congo has an area of 34,965 km².
• Côte d'Ivoire has an area of 322,463 km².
• Djibouti has an area of 23,310 km².
• DR Congo has an area of 2,345,409 km².
• Egypt has an area of 1,101,449 km².
• Equatorial Guinea has an area of 28,051 km².
• Eritrea has an area of 124,320 km².
• Ethiopia has an area of 1,221,900 km².
• Gabon has an area of 267,667 km².
• Gambia has an area of 11,369 km².
• Ghana has an area of 238,537 km².
• Guinea has an area of 245,957 km².
• Guinea-Bissau has an area of 36,125 km².
• Kenya has an area of 582,648 km².
• Lesotho has an area of 30,460 km².
• Liberia has an area of 111,369 km².
• Libya has an area of 1,775,000 km².
• Madagascar has an area of 592,900 km².
• Malawi has an area of 118,484 km².
• Mali has an area of 1,240,192 km².
• Mauritania has an area of 1,030,700 km².
• Mauritius has an area of 2,040 km².
• Morocco has an area of 724,730 km².
• Mozambique has an area of 802,000 km².
• Niger has an area of 1,267,000 km².
• Namibia has an area of 824,295 km².
• Nigeria has an area of 923,773 km².
• Rwanda has an area of 26,338 km².
• São Tomé & Príncipe has an area of 964 km².
• Senegal has an area of 196,192 km².
• Seychelles has an area of 453 km².
• Sierra Leone has an area of 72,325 km².
• Somalia has an area of 626,541 km².
• South Africa has an area of 1,221,037 km².
• South Sudan has an area of 644,329 km².
• Sudan has an area of 1,886,068 km².
• Eswatini has an area of 17,368 km².
• Tanzania has an area of 947,419 km².
• Togo has an area of 56,785 km².
• Tunisia has an area of 164,154 km².
• Uganda has an area of 236,036 km².
• Western Sahara has an area of 252,120 km².
• Zambia has an area of 752,618 km².
• Zimbabwe has an area of 390,759 km².
• Algeria is the largest country in Africa.
• Seychelles is the smallest country in Africa.
• Offshore islands include: Seychelles, Sao Tome and Principe, Mauritius, Comoros, Madagascar, and Cape Verde.

Locating Places and Features on a Map

• The position of a place or feature starts with the latitude, then the longitude.

Major Latitudes and Longitudes

• Major longitude is called the prime meridian, also known as the Greenwich meridian. The Greenwich meridian passes through Ghana (Accra), Algeria, Burkina Faso, and Mali.
• All other longitudes are measured and named from the prime meridian up to 180° on both sides.
• Three major latitudes pass through Africa.

Equator 0°

• The Equator divides Africa into two parts and passes through Gabon, Congo, DR Congo, Uganda, Kenya, and Somalia.

Tropic of Cancer 23 1/2° N

• The Tropic of Cancer passes through Western Sahara, Mali, Mauritania, Algeria, Libya, and Egypt.

Tropic of Capricorn 23 1/2° S

• The Tropic of Capricorn passes through Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, and Madagascar.

Other Important Lines of Latitude

• Arctic Circle: 66 1/2° N
• Antarctic Circle: 66 1/2° S
• Kenya is located at 5°N and 42°S between 34°W and 42°E.

Calculating Time Using Longitudes

• Earth's rotation is the movement of Earth on its axis.
• Distance between longitudes is measured in degrees.
• There are 360 meridians or longitudes.
• One complete rotation is 360°.
• Rotation direction is from west to east (anticlockwise).
• One complete rotation takes 24 hours.
• Places east of the Greenwich meridian see sunrise first and are ahead in time.

Effects of Earth's Rotation

• Differences in time along different longitudes.
• Occurrence of day and night.

Time Calculation

• 24 hours = 360°
• 1 hour = 15°
• 1° covers 4 minutes.
• To calculate time east of the Greenwich Meridian, add the time difference to the local time.
• To calculate time west of the Greenwich Meridian, subtract the time difference from the local time.
• If places are on the same side, subtract the degrees to get the difference, then add or subtract from the reference time.

Pictures, Plans, and Maps

• Picture: Image of a real object with details in visible shapes and sizes. It can be a freehand drawing, painting, or photograph. Not drawn to scale, gives specific information.
• Plan: Outline of something drawn to scale, as if viewed directly above.
• It represents a very small place and shows details.
• Maps: Representation of the whole or part of Earth's surface, drawn to scale.
• Shows outlines of objects and most features are indicated by symbols.

Types of Maps

• Topographical maps show selected natural physical features on a small portion of a country.
• Atlas maps are a collection of maps in one volume.
• Sketch maps are roughly drawn.

Characteristics of a Good Sketch Map

• Neat and clear
• Title
• Frame
• Key
• Compass direction

Importance of Maps

• Summarize information for easy reference (sketch maps).
• Locate other countries.
• Compare sizes of countries.
• Locate climatic regions.
• Provide information on geographical phenomena, e.g., vegetation.
• Help travelers find their way.
• Calculate distances.
• Locate physical features like landforms.

Earth and the Solar System

• The solar system comprises the sun and planets.

Origin of the Solar System

• Passing Star Theory: A star with greater gravitational pull attracted gaseous materials from the sun, which split, cooled, and condensed to form planets.
• Nebula Cloud Theory: A rotating cloud of dust and gas called Nebula cooled and contracted, forming rings of gaseous materials that condensed into planets, with the central material becoming the sun.

Size of the Earth

• Equatorial diameter: 12,756 km
• Equatorial circumference: 40,085 km
• Polar diameter: 39,995 km
• Surface area: 510 x 10^6 km²
• Water surface: 73%

Mercury

• Nearest planet to the sun.
• It lies 58 million km from the sun.
• Has no satellites.
• Takes approximately 88 Earth days to revolve around the sun.

Venus

• Second planet from the sun, 108 million km away.
• One of the brightest planets, visible with the naked eye.
• Takes about 225 Earth days to revolve around the sun.
• Slightly smaller than Earth.
• It has twin planets due to similarities.

Mars

• Also called the Red Planet because it appears reddish through a telescope.
• The fourth planet from the sun.
• Slightly smaller than Earth, approximately 228 million km from the sun.
• Takes 687 Earth days to revolve around the sun.
• Planetoids exist between Mars and Jupiter.
• No satellite present

Jupiter

• Fifth planet from the sun, approximately 778 million km away.
• Largest in the universe.
• Rotates very fast on its axis, resulting in flattened poles.
• Has thick layers of ice on its surface.
• Takes 12 Earth years to revolve around the sun.
• Contains 16 satellites.

Saturn

• Sixth planet from the sun.
• Second largest planet.
• Approximately 1427 million km from the sun.
• Takes 29.5 Earth years to revolve around the sun.
• Has a ring around it.
• Has 18 satellites.

Uranus

• Seventh planet from the sun.
• About 4 times bigger than Earth, approximately 2870 million km from the sun.
• Rotates very fast.
• It also has flattened poles due to fast rotation speed.
• Appears greenish due to methane gas.
• Has 8 satellites.
• Takes 84 Earth years to revolve around the sun.

Neptune

• One of the farthest from the sun.
• Eighth planet from the sun, approximately 4497 million km from the sun.
• Has 8 satellites.
• Takes 165 earth years to revolve around the sun.
• Very similar in size, colour and character to Uranus.

Shape of the Earth

• The shape is called geoid/ovoid/oblate spheroid.
• It is an imperfect sphere, wide at the equator and flat at the poles.

Position of the Earth in the Solar System

• The third planet from the sun.
• The earth and the heavenly bodies create the universe.
• The only planet that supports life.
• Home of man.
• Approximately 149 million km from the sun.
• Takes 365 1/4 days to revolve around the sun.
• It has one satellite, the moon.

Rotation of the Earth

• Movement of the Earth on its axis.
• Rotates through 360°.
• Takes 24 hours (day) to complete one rotation.
• Rotates in an anticlockwise direction (west to east).

Effects of Earth's Rotation

• Creates day and night because at any one time one side of the earth faces the sun (day) and the other remains in darkness (night).
• Causes deflection of winds and ocean currents.
• It causes rising and falling of ocean tides.
• Causes time differences between longitudes.

Effects of Rotation on Human Activities

• Day and night affects planning day and night activities.
• High and low tides helps in fishing activities, and Sea transport.
• Deflection of winds and ocean currents triggers cyclones, hurricanes and tornadoes, causes pressure changes, affects ocean currents and movement of wind, growing of crops, Aviation or sea transport and causes flooding.
• Time difference affects travelling, Education and Sports.

Revolution of the Earth

• Movement of the earth in its orbit around the sun.
• The direction is anticlockwise.
• Orbits is elliptical.
• Takes 365 ¼ days or 366 days in a leap year (every 4 years).
• The sun moves from the Tropic of Cancer to the Equator and then towards the Tropic of Capricorn and back to the Tropic of Cancer.
• March 21st and September 23rd are called equinoxes because the length of day and night is equal, when the sun is vertically overhead at noon at the equator.
• June 21st is called summer solstice (summer in the Northern Hemisphere), when the sun is vertically overhead at noon at the Tropic of Cancer.
• December 22nd is called winter solstice (winter in the Southern Hemisphere), when the sun is vertically overhead at noon at the Tropic of Capricorn.
• Solstice is the period of maximum tilting of Earth towards the sun.

Effects of Revolution of the Earth

• Causes the four seasons: summer, autumn, winter, spring.
• Causes the variation of day and night lengths:
  • Equinoxes have equal lengths of day and night.
  • Summers have longer days/shorter nights.
  • Winters have longer nights/shorter days.
• Causes changes in:
  • The altitude of the midday sun.
  • The earth's orbit to be elliptical.
  • Lunar eclipses as the earth moves in line with the sun and the moon.

Effects of Revolution of the Earth on Human Activities

• Changes in the position of the midday sun and differing length of day and night at different times of the year, affect all seasons.

Internal Structure of the Earth

• Crust/Lithosphere: Outermost layer made of soils and loose deposits of sand, dominant rocks are granites. It extends 0-50km and has 2 layers.
• Sial: Continental crust made of light coloured rocks. It is called sial due to silica and aluminium composition.
• Sima: Oceanic crust made of basaltic rocks. It is called sima due to silica, magnesium and iron.
• Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho): The Definite zone of discontinuity between the crust and the mantle was discovered by Dr. Andrija Mohorovicic in 1909.
• Mantle/Asthenosphere: The Layer lies between the crust and the core, made of iron and magnesium, has 2 layers.
  • Upper Mantle: Rocks are elastic, average temperature ≈ 1000°c.
  • Lower Mantle: Rocks are viscous liquid and range from 1000°c to 3000°c.
• Gutenberg Discontinuity: A definite zone of discontinuity between mantle and core lies here.
• Core/Barysphere/Centrosphere: The innermost/central layer has 2 layers:
  • Outer Core: Composed of very dense rocks. Made of nickel and iron, average temperatures ≈ 3700°c.
  • Inner Core: Solid mass of iron and is estimated to be approximately 4500°c to 5000°c.
• Atmosphere: gases surrounds Earth. It has a gravity of 330km and consists of gases, smoke, dust and water vapour.
• Hydrosphere: Refers to all oceans and seas.

Weather

• Weather is the daily atmospheric conditions of a place at a particular time.

Elements of Weather

• Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a place.
• Humidity is the amount of water vapour or moisture in the atmosphere.
• Precipitation includes all forms of moisture which fall from the atmosphere to Earth's surface.
• Rainfall is a form of precipitation formed from clouds of water droplets.
• Wind referrs to the moving air on the surface of Earth.
• Sunshine is the direct rays of sunlight on the surface of Earth.
• Cloud cover a mass of tiny droplets of water or ice formed through condensation.

Analysis and Interpretation of Weather Conditions

• Diurnal/daily Temperature range: the difference between the maximum and minimum temperature for any one day.

• Mean Daily Temperature: the average of the maximum and the minimum daily temperatures.

• Mean Monthly Temperature: the average daily temperatures in a month divided by the number of days in that month.

• Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature: the sum of daily minimum temperatures divided by the number of days in that month.

• Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature: the sum of daily maximum temperatures divided by the number of days in that month.

• Mean Annual Temperature: the monthly averages of monthly temperatures divided by 12.

• Mean Annual Temperature Range: the difference in lowest monthly tempreatures in a year.

• Monthly Rainfall Total: is the recorded sum of rainfal in a month.

• Annual Rainfall Total: is the sum of monthly rainfall totals for 12 months.

• Mean Monthly Rainfall: is the number of rainfall totals for a particular month over several years divided by the number of the years of observation.

• Mean Annual Rainfall is the sum of mean monthly rainfall for 12 months of the year.

Factors to Consider When Siting a Weather Station

• A weather station where observation, measuring and recording of weather elements is done, needs an open space, where there is little obstruction of weather and accessible and gentle slopping land of approximately 5°:

Factor of a Weather Station

• Security: The location should have security.
• Landscape: The area provides a wide view of surrounding landscape and sky.
• Free from Flooding: The site is free from flooding.

Instruments for Measuring Elements of Weather

• Thermometer: measures temperature.
• Hygrometer: measures humidity.
• Rain gauge: measures rainfall.
• Barometer: measures air pressure.
• Sunshine recorder: measures sunshine duration and intensity.
• Wind vane: measures wind direction.
• Anemometer: measures wind speed.

Materials to Construct a Wind Stock

• A paper cup, clay and plasticine, a pin, drinking straw, marker pen, a white circular cardboard, square and triangular paper cuttings and a pencil with a rubber head.

Material Needed to construct a rain gauge

• A two litre plastic bottle, Ruler, a ballpoint pen, masking tape and scalpel.

Materials Needed to construct a windsock

• Cylindrical bag, string, scalpel, water paints, empty plastic fat/magarine tin, masking tape or cellotape, a pole with a pointed end and painting brushes or chewed sticks.