Cardiovascular System and Disorders

Cardiovascular Disorders

• Aldosterone increases sodium and water reabsorption into the bloodstream at the nephron, while secreting potassium into the nephron tubules.
• Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) are considered "bad" cholesterol because they are deposited on artery walls.
• High-density lipoproteins (HDL) are considered "good" cholesterol because they are excreted from the body.
• Atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive disease characterized by a long asymptomatic phase.
• Nicotine raises blood pressure and increases resistance to blood flow.
• Angina Pectoris is a squeezing pain in the chest that occurs due to lack of blood flow to the myocardium, known as myocardial ischemia.
• Pericarditis is the inflammation of the pericardial membrane that surrounds the heart.
• Cardiac Output is the amount of blood that flows from the heart’s left ventricle per minute.
• Dysrhythmia is an abnormality in a physiological rhythm, especially in the activity of the brain or heart, and may occur when valvular deformity causes distention and enlargement of a heart chamber, disrupting the conduction system.
• Heart Murmurs are sounds transmitted through the chest wall, heard with a stethoscope, caused by turbulent blood flow through the heart or great vessels.
• Orthopnea is the feeling of shortness of breath when in a flat, supine position.
• Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) converts the inactive peptide angiotensin I into the active vasoconstrictor angiotensin II.
• Myocardial Infarction (MI) is most commonly caused by coronary artery atherosclerosis.

Respiratory Disorders

• Gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs within the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli.
• Inflammatory pulmonary disorders involve inflammation of the airways.
• Infectious pulmonary disorders are caused by bacteria, fungi, or viruses (e.g., Pneumonia).
• Obstructive pulmonary disorders are caused by blockages in the airways, making it hard to exhale (e.g., Asthma, COPD, & Bronchiectasis).
• Restrictive pulmonary disorders are caused by lung tissue damage and scarring, making it hard to inhale (e.g., Pulmonary fibrosis).
• Erythropoietin stimulates the bone marrow to synthesize red blood cells (RBCs) in response to hypoxia.
• Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease causing episodes of spastic reactivity in the bronchioles, commonly triggered by allergies or viral respiratory infections; multiple episodes can lead to airway remodeling and fixed obstruction.
• Pneumonia is commonly caused by inhalation of droplets containing bacteria or other pathogens, leading to an inflammatory reaction in the lower respiratory tract and alveoli.
• Bronchitis signs/symptoms: Cough, fever, sore throat, general malaise.
• Asthma signs/symptoms: Wheezes, cough, dyspnea, chest tightness.
• Pneumonia signs/symptoms: Difficulty breathing, fever, cough, chills, malaise, myalgias, pleuritic chest pain, and Sputum production.
• Respiratory Distress signs/symptoms: Critically ill patient commonly in intensive care for another diagnosis.
• The initial diagnostic test for pulmonary disorders is a chest x-ray; CT scans and MRI can also be used.

Renal Disorders

• Between 1990 and 2015, end-stage renal disease (ESRD) prevalence in the U.S. nearly doubled due to an aging population and rising diabetes and hypertension rates.
• As of 2021, one in seven adults has chronic kidney disease (CKD), with up to 90% unaware, and African Americans have the highest incidence of kidney disease.
• The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) normally ranges from 90 to 120 mL/min and decreases with age, increasing medication toxicity risk.
• Acute kidney injury (AKI) can be prerenal, intrinsic renal, or postrenal.
• Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is the most common hereditary cause, and acute tubular necrosis (ATN) is the leading cause of AKI.
• Serum creatinine is the best measure of kidney function.
• Common conditions include nephrotic syndrome (proteinuria and edema), pyelonephritis (infection with fever), and nephrolithiasis (pain and hematuria).
• CKD is irreversible and can lead to heart failure.
• ESRD occurs at 5-10% nephron function, with hemodialysis as the main treatment and kidney transplantation as the only complete rehabilitation option.
• Lower urinary tract infections (UTIs) are common, especially in young women, and typically present with symptoms like dysuria, frequency, and urgency.
• In men over 60, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) often contributes to UTIs.
• For older adults in long-term care, lower UTIs can lead to urosepsis.
• E. coli is the most frequent causative pathogen for UTIs, and urinalysis is the primary diagnostic test for infections.
• Classic signs of nephrolithiasis and urolithiasis include flank pain, hematuria, and crystalluria, with calcium oxalate being the most common type of stone.
• Asymptomatic bacteriuria (ASB) is common in older women and typically requires no antibiotic treatment.
• Interstitial cystitis (IC) involves chronic pelvic pain and urinary symptoms, while cystoscopy is often the most conclusive diagnostic procedure for urological disorders.
• Painless gross hematuria may indicate bladder cancer, with nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) being the most prevalent type.
• Various types of urinary incontinence exist, including stress and urge incontinence.
• The nephron's goal is to yield a concentrated urine that contains waste products.
• Prerenal dysfunction is caused by decreased blood flow and perfusion to the kidney.
• Intrarenal dysfunction develops secondary to actual injuries to the kidney itself.
• Postrenal dysfunction is related to obstruction of urine outflow from the kidneys.
• Symptoms of Nephrolithiasis are severe back pain with radiation into the groin, severe abdominal pain, and chills.
• Normal GFR is 90 to 120 mL/minute.
• Greatest incidence of kidney disease is among the African American population.
• The bladder holds 400 to 500 milliliters (mL) of urine.
• UTI risk factors for men include enlargement of the prostate gland.
• UTI risk factors for women include improper perineal hygiene, wearing tight clothing, and use of irritating bath products; sexual intercourse and use of contraceptive diaphragms/spermicides also increase risk.
• UTI risk factors for both men and women include dehydration, urinary catheterization, diabetes, bladder cancer, cancer in tissues adjacent to the bladder, and cancer treatments.
• The treatment for UTI is antibiotics.
• Main types of Renal Calculi: Calcium stones, Struvite stones, Uric acid stones, Cystine stones.