Carbohydrates Overview Quiz

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are one of the four macromolecules, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, essential for life.
• Another name for carbohydrates is saccharides.
• A simple sugar is a saccharide characterized by 1-3 monomer bonds.
• A complex carbohydrate is a saccharide with more than 10 monomer bonds.
• Monosaccharides are the single units of carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose).
• Oligosaccharides are saccharides composed of 3-10 monosaccharide chains.
• Polysaccharides are saccharides composed of more than 10 monosaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose, glycogen).
• Monomers are the single units of any macromolecule.
• Polymers are made up of multiple monomers.
• Amylose is another name for starch.
• Amylase is an enzyme that breaks down amylose (starch).
• Covalent bonds: Electrons are shared between atoms.
• Dehydration synthesis: A chemical reaction that involves the loss of a water molecule to form a bond.
• Hydrolysis: A chemical reaction that uses a water molecule to break a bond.
• Enzymes are polypeptide proteins that catalyze and speed up chemical reactions after binding to a substrate.
• Substrates link to enzymes to trigger catalysis.
• The hydroxyl group is a polar -OH group found on alcohols.
• Glycemic index measures how quickly a food raises and lowers blood sugar.
• Insulin resistance: The body's inability to effectively use insulin, leading to type 2 diabetes.
• Insulin sensitivity: How reactive the body is to insulin, controlling blood sugar levels.
• Sucrose is a disaccharide found in table sugar, composed of glucose and fructose.
• Lactose: The disaccharide found in milk and dairy products, composed of glucose and galactose.
• The six most abundant elements in the human body are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium.
• The most common molecule in the human body is water.
• Organic compounds typically have complex structures and high molecular weights.
• Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• Single bonds have 2 shared electrons, double bonds have 4, and triple bonds have 6.
• Functions of carbohydrates include providing quick energy, forming structural components, and facilitating cellular communication.
• Common monosaccharides are glucose, galactose, and fructose.
• Common disaccharides include sucrose (glucose + fructose), maltose (glucose + glucose), and lactose (glucose + galactose).
• Glucose and fructose have similar chemical formulas (C₆H₁₂O₆). Sucrose and other disaccharides have the formula C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁.
• Cellulose (plant): structural component.
• Chitin (animal): structural component.
• Glycogen (animal): energy storage.
• Starch (plant): energy storage.
• Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles.
• Polymers are formed through dehydration synthesis, and broken down through hydrolysis.
• One water molecule is needed to form or break a disaccharide. Four water molecules are needed to form or break down a 5-monomer polymer.
• Starch indicators are iodine (turns dark brown/black). Simple sugars indicators are Benedict’s solution (brick red/orange).
• Insulin regulates blood sugar by allowing glucose to enter cells; its absence can lead to diabetes.
• Foods with a high glycemic index include simple carbohydrates (white bread, corn syrup, honey). Low glycemic index foods are those lacking significant carbohydrates or containing resistant carbohydrates (eggs, fish, broccoli, avocados).
• Endurance athletes load up on carbohydrates to provide quick energy.
• Amylose and maltose are digested by enzymes in the human body.

Lipids

• Lipids are one of the four essential macromolecules for life.
• Adipose tissue is fatty tissue and cells in the body.
• A cell membrane is the semi-permeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell.
• Cholesterol is a lipid vital for hormone production, vitamin D synthesis, and fat digestion.
• Cortisol is a stress hormone.
• Fatty acids are carboxylic acids containing a hydrocarbon chain and a carboxyl group.
• Glycerol is the backbone of triglycerides.
• HDL (high-density lipoprotein) is a healthy type of lipid that removes LDL (low-density lipoprotein).
• Hydrogenation is a process that converts liquid oils into solids by adding hydrogen molecules, creating trans fats.
• Hydrophilic substances are attracted to water.
• Hydrophobic substances repel water.
• Hyperlipidemia is an excess of LDL in the body.
• Lipids have several functions: forming cell membranes, providing insulation, storing long-term energy, making hormones and vitamins.
• Phospholipids form the cell membrane.
• Steroids (e.g., cholesterol) make sex hormones and reduce inflammation.
• Triglycerides store long-term energy (glycerol + 3 fatty acids).
• Waxes help protect cells from the outside.
• Triglycerides are the most common lipid in the body.
• Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble.
• Triglycerides consist of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acids.
• Saturated fatty acids have single bonds, are straight, solid at room temperature, and are typically considered less healthy for consumption.
• Unsaturated fatty acids have at least one double bond, are bent, liquid at room temperature, and are generally considered healthier.
• Trans fats are created during hydrogenation. They raise "bad" cholesterol and lower "good" cholesterol.
• Phospholipids have a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails.
• Cell membranes are fluid mosaics made of various components.
• The phospholipid bilayer structure forms the cell membrane.
• Small nonpolar molecules pass easily through the cell membrane.
• Cholesterol maintains membrane fluidity.
• Cell membranes are selectively permeable.
• The liver produces cholesterol.
• Healthy blood cholesterol levels in adults should include LDL under 100mg/dL, HDL over 40mg/dL, and total cholesterol under 200mg/dL.
• Trans fats raise LDL and lower HDL cholesterol.
• High LDL can lead to arterial plaque buildup, increasing the risk of hypertension, blood clots, stroke, and heart disease.
• Steroids are hydrophobic and nonpolar (do not dissolve in water).

Lactose Intolerance

• Lactose is the primary sugar in milk.
• Lactase is the enzyme that breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose.
• Enterocytes in the small intestine produce lactase.
• A blood glucose test can determine lactase persistence or non-persistence.
• Lactase non-persistence is more common globally, (about 67%).
• The lactase gene is typically turned off after weaning.
• Lactose intolerance symptoms include abdominal discomfort and diarrhea, caused by undigested lactose.
• Lactase persistence is often linked to a specific point mutation.
• Lactase persistence is a dominant trait. The mutation responsible for lactase persistence occurs in the LCT gene and typically involves a single point change from C to T.
• Milk consumption likely drove the selection for lactase persistence in some populations.

Making Lactose-Free Milk Lab

• Positive control is lactose-free milk.
• Negative control is regular milk (untreated).
• Substrate is lactose.
• Enzyme is lactase.
• Products are glucose and galactose.
• Sodium alginate immobilizes lactase for reuse.
• Glucose test strips measure the amount of glucose.

Pedigree Charts

• Pedigree charts track traits through generations of a family.
• Unaffected female and male are represented by empty shapes (circle and square).
• Affected female and male are represented by shaded shapes (circle and square).
• Deceed individuals are represented by a slash through the shape.
• Horizontal lines connecting shapes represent marriages.
• Carriers are represented by half-shaded shapes.
• Dominant traits have no carriers.
• Recessive traits have carriers.
• Sex-linked recessive traits affect males more frequently and have no male carriers.
• Generations are represented by numbers to the left of the chart.
• If both parents are carriers of a recessive disorder, there is a 25% chance that their child will be affected.
• Cousins from the same generation in the family are connected by the same grandparents.
• Homozygous dominant is represented by fully shaded shapes.

Test your knowledge on carbohydrates, their types, and essential characteristics. This quiz covers topics including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Dive into the world of saccharides and their roles in life.