Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which statement best describes lactose?
Which statement best describes lactose?
What type of glycosidic bond is present in sucrose?
What type of glycosidic bond is present in sucrose?
Which disaccharide is known as malt sugar?
Which disaccharide is known as malt sugar?
Which of the following is true about sucrose?
Which of the following is true about sucrose?
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How is maltose formed?
How is maltose formed?
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Which of the following describes a ketose?
Which of the following describes a ketose?
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What is the classification of D-glucose?
What is the classification of D-glucose?
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Which of the following carbohydrates is classified as a polysaccharide?
Which of the following carbohydrates is classified as a polysaccharide?
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What is the normal blood glucose level range?
What is the normal blood glucose level range?
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What is the unique feature of cysteine among standard amino acids?
What is the unique feature of cysteine among standard amino acids?
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What structural representation of monosaccharides shows the straight chain formula?
What structural representation of monosaccharides shows the straight chain formula?
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Which sugar is found freely in nature?
Which sugar is found freely in nature?
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What naming convention is used for the N-terminal amino acid in a peptide?
What naming convention is used for the N-terminal amino acid in a peptide?
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What is the formula for D-fructose?
What is the formula for D-fructose?
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How many amino acids are present in a tripeptide?
How many amino acids are present in a tripeptide?
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Which of the following correctly describes a disulfide bond in relation to cysteine?
Which of the following correctly describes a disulfide bond in relation to cysteine?
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What condition reflects abnormally high blood sugar levels?
What condition reflects abnormally high blood sugar levels?
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Which term describes peptides containing the same amino acids arranged in different sequences?
Which term describes peptides containing the same amino acids arranged in different sequences?
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What is the full name of the peptide formed from valine, threonine, and cysteine?
What is the full name of the peptide formed from valine, threonine, and cysteine?
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What defines an oligopeptide?
What defines an oligopeptide?
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Where does the C-terminal amino acid residue appear in a peptide sequence?
Where does the C-terminal amino acid residue appear in a peptide sequence?
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What type of glycosidic bonds link the glucose units in amylose?
What type of glycosidic bonds link the glucose units in amylose?
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Which statement about glycogen is accurate?
Which statement about glycogen is accurate?
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What type of polysaccharide is cellulose categorized as?
What type of polysaccharide is cellulose categorized as?
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What is the primary function of glycogen in the body?
What is the primary function of glycogen in the body?
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Which of the following statements about amylopectin is true?
Which of the following statements about amylopectin is true?
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Which component of carbohydrates cannot be digested by humans?
Which component of carbohydrates cannot be digested by humans?
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Which term refers to compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements?
Which term refers to compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements?
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How are chiral centers defined in terms of their molecular structure?
How are chiral centers defined in terms of their molecular structure?
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What primary function do hormones like insulin serve?
What primary function do hormones like insulin serve?
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What is the correct name for the peptide formed from Glycine and Alanine?
What is the correct name for the peptide formed from Glycine and Alanine?
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Which type of isomerism involves compounds with the same molecular formula and structure, but differ in spatial configuration?
Which type of isomerism involves compounds with the same molecular formula and structure, but differ in spatial configuration?
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Which of the following peptide hormones is known to be produced by the pituitary gland?
Which of the following peptide hormones is known to be produced by the pituitary gland?
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What is the main reason humans cannot digest cellulose?
What is the main reason humans cannot digest cellulose?
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Which amino acid does not follow the usual naming convention when forming peptide names?
Which amino acid does not follow the usual naming convention when forming peptide names?
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Amylose is described as which of the following?
Amylose is described as which of the following?
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What is a characteristic of non-superimposable mirror images?
What is a characteristic of non-superimposable mirror images?
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Which of the following compounds represents structural isomerism?
Which of the following compounds represents structural isomerism?
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What type of protein consists of only one peptide chain?
What type of protein consists of only one peptide chain?
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What does the handedness ('left handed' and 'right handed') in biochemical context refer to?
What does the handedness ('left handed' and 'right handed') in biochemical context refer to?
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What term describes a complex protein that includes amino acids bonded with other substances?
What term describes a complex protein that includes amino acids bonded with other substances?
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Which of the following statements about carbohydrates is false?
Which of the following statements about carbohydrates is false?
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What is the primary protein structure defined as?
What is the primary protein structure defined as?
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Which of the following is a pentapeptide neurotransmitter that reduces pain?
Which of the following is a pentapeptide neurotransmitter that reduces pain?
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Which statement accurately describes a small peptide hormone?
Which statement accurately describes a small peptide hormone?
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Study Notes
Carbohydrates
- Major sources of energy from plants
- Synthesized by plants from CO2 and H2O
- Glucose is a key example
- Saccharides are a Greek word for sugars
Functions
- Provide energy
- Glycogen: short-term energy storage
- Supply carbon for other biochemicals
- Component of DNA and RNA
- Linked to lipids & proteins
- Spare protein use
- Breakdown fatty acids and prevent ketosis
- Provide flavor and sweetness
- Source of dietary fiber
Structural Properties
- Handedness is determined by the configuration at the highest numbered chiral center
- Presence of chiral centers leads to stereoisomerism
- Superimposable mirror image coincides at all points.
- Non-superimposable mirror images do not coincide.
- Chiral center has four different groups bonded tetrahedrally.
Isomerism
- Compounds with identical molecular formulas but different structures.
- Glucose and Fructose are structural isomers.
- Stereoisomers have identical molecular formulas and structures. but differ in arrangement.
- Presence of chiral centers allows stereoisomers formation.
Types of Stereoisomerism
- D and L isomers
- Epimers
- Anomers
Optical Isomerism
- Optical activity is the capacity to rotate plane-polarized light.
- D-sugars rotate light clockwise.
- L-sugars rotate light counter-clockwise.
Epimerism
- If two monosaccharides differ at a carbon other than the anomeric carbon, they are epimers.
Anomerism
- Difference in position of the hydroxyl group at the anomeric carbon.
- D-Glucose's cyclic form can exist in a and β anomeric forms.
Classification (carbohydrates)
- Monosaccharides
- Disaccharides
- Oligosaccharides
- Polysaccharides
Classification (based on reaction to oxidizing agents)
- Reducing sugars (positive Benedict's/Tollen's test)
- Glucose, galactose, fructose
- Non-reducing sugars (negative Benedict's/Tollen's test)
- Sucrose, maltose
Monosaccharides
- Consist of 3–6 carbon atoms
- Glucose, fructose, galactose & others
Polysaccharides
- Condensation of many monosaccharides
- Amylose & amylopectin are types
- Glycogen (animal starch)
- Cellulose (plant starch)
Blood Glucose Level
- Normal blood glucose level: 70/90 mg/dl.
- Glucose tolerance test measures blood sugar after glucose intake.
Blood Glucose Conditions
- Hyperglycemia: high blood sugar
- Hypoglycemia: low blood sugar
D-Fructose and D-Glucose
- Ketohexose
- Sweetest of carbohydrates
- Component of fruits, vegetables & honey
D-Galactose
- Aldohexose
- Component of lactose, a disaccharide
Disaccharides
- Formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides
- Maltose (glucose + glucose)
- Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
- Lactose (glucose + galactose)
Lipids
- Organic substances
- Insoluble in water; soluble in organic solvents
- Types:
- Fatty acids
- Triglycerides
- Phospholipids
Fatty Acids
- Long hydrocarbon chain
- Carboxyl group
- Saturated (no double bonds)
- Unsaturated (one or more double bonds)
Triacylglycerols
- Fats and oils
- Formed from glycerol and three fatty acids (ester linkage)
Phospholipids
- Similar to triglycerides, but with a phosphate group
- Important components of cell membranes
Steroids
- Four-ring structures
- Cholesterol, important component of cell membranes
Glycolipids
- Lipids with carbohydrate groups
- Cell surface markers
Micelles
- Spherical structures of surfactants
- Hydrophobic tails inward; hydrophilic heads outward
Other Lipids
- Waxes
- Leukotrienes
Proteins
- Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
- Essential for structure, function, and regulation in organisms
- Types of Proteins:
- Simple proteins: only amino acids
- Conjugated proteins: contain non-amino acid components
Amino Acids
- Building blocks of proteins
- 20 common amino acids
- Central carbon with amino group, carboxyl group, and R group
- Polar, nonpolar, acidic, or basic based on R group
- Protein structure depends on sequence and properties of amino acids
Peptides
- Chains of 2 or more amino acids linked by peptide bonds
- Dipeptides, tripeptides, oligopeptides, and polypeptides
Protein Structure
- Primary: amino acid sequence
- Secondary: alpha helix and beta sheets (hydrogen bonding)
- Tertiary: 3D structure (interactions between R groups),
- Quaternary: multiple polypeptide chains
Protein Denaturation
- Loss of protein's 3D structure due to heat, chemicals, etc.
- Loss of function
- Example: cooking an egg
Protein Hydrolysis
- Breaking down proteins into amino acids by adding water
- Enzymes catalyze this process in the body during digestion
Nucleic Acids
- Polymers of nucleotides
- DNA and RNA
- Store and transmit genetic information
Nucleotides
- Monomers of nucleic acids
- Sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base
- Adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil
DNA
- Deoxyribonucleic acid
- Double helix structure
- Stores genetic information
- Base pairs: A-T, G-C
RNA
- Ribonucleic acid
- Single-stranded
- Three types: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
- Involved in protein synthesis
Genetic Code
- Set of rules that determines how mRNA codons translate into specific amino acids during protein synthesis
Replication
- Process of producing identical copies of DNA molecules
Transcription
- Process of copying DNA's genetic information into mRNA.
Translation
- Process of using mRNA's genetic information to synthesize proteins from amino acids.
Regulation
- Protein synthesis is regulated at different levels (transcription, translation).
Viruses
- Infectious agents
- DNA or RNA enclosed in protein coat
- Need host cell for reproduction
Mutation
- Change in a DNA sequence
- Can be substitution or frameshift
- Can affect protein structure and function
HIV and AIDS
- Retrovirus that causes AIDS
- Infects T4 lymphocytes
- Treatment involves preventing reverse transcriptase and modifying protease.
Classification of Proteins
- Fibrous (structural)
- Globular (functional)
Biological Waxes
- Water insoluble
- Protective coatings and lubrication
Phospholipids
- Important membrane components
- Hydrophilic head; hydrophobic tail
- Form lipid bilayers
Micelles
- Surfactant molecules
- Hydrophobic tails cluster inward
Sphingolipids
- Lipids containing sphingosine and other components
- Cell membrane components
- Cerebrosides, sphingomyelins, gangliosides
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Description
Test your knowledge on carbohydrates, their functions, and structural properties. This quiz covers key concepts such as energy sources, glycemic responses, and isomerism. Delve into the crucial role carbohydrates play in biochemistry and nutrition.
