Carbohydrates Overview Quiz

Carbohydrates

• Various classes of carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides
• Glycosaminoglycans: Important structural components of connective tissue
  • Hyaluronan: found in synovial fluid, vitreous humor, and cartilage
  • Chondroitin sulfate: found in cartilage, tendons, and bones
  • Keratin sulfate: found in cartilage, cornea, and bone
  • Heparin: a blood anticoagulant
• Bacterial polysaccharides: Play a role in bacterial cell wall structure and function
• Blood group substances: Glycoproteins and glycolipids found on the surface of red blood cells that determine blood type
• Glycoproteins: Proteins with carbohydrate groups attached
  • O-glycoproteins: Carbohydrate attached to serine or threonine residues
  • N-glycoproteins: Carbohydrate attached to asparagine residues
• Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose to pyruvate, generates ATP and reducing equivalents (NADH)
• Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle): Oxidizes pyruvate to carbon dioxide, generates ATP and reducing equivalents (NADH and FADH2)
• Glycogenolysis: Breakdown of glycogen into glucose
• Glycogenesis: Synthesis of glycogen from glucose
• Gluconeogenesis: Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors

Lipids

• Fatty acids: Long-chain carboxylic acids
• Fats: Esters of glycerol and fatty acids, also known as triacylglycerols
• Saponification: The process of hydrolyzing fats with a strong base to produce soap and glycerol
• Iodine value: A measure of the degree of unsaturation in a fat
• Acid value: A measure of the free fatty acid content in a fat
• Acetyl value: A measure of the amount of hydroxyl groups in a fat
• Peroxide value: A measure of the degree of oxidation in a fat
• Rancidity: The deterioration of fats due to oxidation
• Waxes: Esters of long-chain fatty acids and long-chain alcohols
• Triacylglycerols: The most common type of fat in animals and plants
• Phosphoglycerides: Glycerophospholipids containing a phosphate group
• Sphingolipids: Lipids containing the amino alcohol sphingosine
• Eicosanoids: A group of lipids derived from arachidonic acid, including prostaglandins and thromboxanes
• Sterols: Steroid alcohols, cholesterol is a major example
• Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E, and K are essential for various physiological functions

Vitamin A, D, E, and K

• Vitamin A: Important for vision, growth, and immune function
• Vitamin D: Essential for calcium absorption and bone health
• Vitamin E: An antioxidant that protects cells from damage
• Vitamin K: Necessary for blood clotting

Amino Acids

• Physical and chemical properties of amino acids: Each amino acid has unique properties based on its side chain, including polarity, charge, and hydrophobicity.
• Titration of amino acids: Determining the pKa values of the amino acid functional groups
• Separation of amino acids: Many techniques exist, including paper chromatography and ion exchange chromatography
• Urea cycle: Detoxifies ammonia by converting it to urea, which is excreted in the urine
• Inherited defects of urea cycle: Can lead to hyperammonemia, a toxic buildup of ammonia in the blood
• General reactions of amino acids: Amino acids can be modified through various reactions, including transamination and deamination.
• Role and clinical significance of SGOT and SGPT: Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) are enzymes released into the bloodstream when liver cells are damaged, used to diagnose liver disease.

Proteins

• Structure and biological functions of globular proteins: Include hemoglobin, myoglobin, enzymes, and antibodies, involved in oxygen transport, catalysis, and immune response
• Hemoglobin: Carries oxygen in the blood
• Myoglobin: Stores oxygen in muscle
• Structure and biological functions of fibrous proteins: Include collagen, keratin, and silk fibroin, provide structural support and protection
• Collagen: The most abundant protein in the body, provides strength to connective tissues
• Keratin: A major component of hair, skin, and nails
• Sickle cell hemoglobin: A mutated form of hemoglobin that causes red blood cells to sickle shape, leading to anemia
• Conjugated proteins: Proteins with non-protein components, such as lipoproteins and glycoproteins
• Lectins: Proteins that bind to carbohydrates, involved in cell recognition, adhesion, and signaling
• Disorders of amino acid metabolism:
  • Phenylketonuria (PKU): A genetic disorder that affects the metabolism of phenylalanine, can lead to intellectual disability if not treated
  • Alkaptonuria: A rare genetic disorder that affects the metabolism of homogentisic acid, leads to dark urine and joint problems
  • Maple syrup urine disease: A genetic disorder that affects the metabolism of branched-chain amino acids, causes a maple syrup odor in urine
  • Methylmalonic academia (MMA): A genetic disorder that affects the metabolism of vitamin B12, can lead to developmental delay and neurological problems
  • Homocystinuria: A genetic disorder that affects the metabolism of methionine, can lead to blood clots, eye problems, and skeletal abnormalities

Nucleic acids

• Purine and pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis: Building blocks of DNA and RNA, synthesized through complex pathways.
• Synthesis of deoxyribonucleotides: Conversion of ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides, essential for DNA replication.
• Salvage pathway: Reclaims and reuses purine and pyrimidine bases rather than synthesizing them from scratch.
• Purine and pyrimidine degradation: Breakdown of purines and pyrimidines into waste products.
• Disorders of purine and pyrimidine metabolism:
  • Lesch-Nyhan syndrome: A genetic disorder affecting the purine salvage pathway, leads to self-injurious behavior, gout, and intellectual disability.
  • Gout: A disorder characterized by hyperuricemia, high levels of uric acid in the blood, resulting in painful inflammation of the joints
  • Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID): A group of genetic disorders that affect the immune system, can be caused by defects in purine metabolism.

Enzymes

• Enzymes in medicine and industry: Enzymes are widely used in medical and industrial applications
• Enzymes used in clinical biochemistry:
  • Reagents: Used in laboratory tests to measure the levels of specific substances in the body
  • Diagnostics: Aid in the diagnosis of diseases
  • Therapy: Used to treat certain diseases
• Role of immobilized enzymes in industry: Using enzymes that are attached to a solid support, which allows for reuse and stability
• Applications of enzymes in:
  • Food industry: Used in production of cheese, brewing, and baking, among others.
  • Biotechnology: Used in the production of biofuels, pharmaceuticals, and other products.

Test your knowledge on the various classes of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Explore glycosaminoglycans, bacterial polysaccharides, and their roles in biological systems. Understand the functions of glycoproteins and the metabolic pathways like glycolysis and the TCA cycle.