Carbohydrates in Cellular Biology

The addition of a phosphate group (PO₄³) to a molecule.

A simple sugar that is the primary energy source for the brain. Its chemical formula is $C_6H_{12}O_6$ and it contains 6 carbon atoms.

Enzymes that add phosphate groups to molecules.

A complex carbohydrate formed from two monosaccharides linked together by a glycosidic bond.

Enzymes that remove phosphate groups from molecules.

A disaccharide formed from two glucose molecules joined by a 1-4 glycosidic bond.

A branched polymer of glucose monomers linked by alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds. It also has alpha-1,6 glycosidic bonds at branching points.

A disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose linked by a 1-2 glycosidic bond.

A polysaccharide made up of thousands of glucose units, branched for efficient storage and break down.

A structural polymer of beta-glucose monomers linked by beta-1,4 glycosidic bonds. It forms unbranched chains.

A type of carbohydrate made up of only one sugar molecule.

A long chain of many sugars linked together, like starch or glycogen.

The type of sugar where the carbonyl group (C=O) is in the middle of the carbon chain.

A class of lipids characterized by a specific four-ring structure.

The most important steroid in our body - the foundation for all others.

A type of steroid important for digestion, helping break down fats.

Steroids that influence sexual development and function.

A steroid essential for calcium absorption and bone health.

Steroids that are key components of cell membranes, providing fluidity and stability.

The process of joining monomers to form polymers, releasing water.

The process of breaking down polymers into monomers using water.

Lipids are a diverse group of molecules that are insoluble or slightly soluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents.

Lipids are essential for energy storage, forming cell membranes, acting as messengers, providing insulation, and acting as vitamins.

Simple lipids are derived from fatty acids and glycerol, with triglycerides being a major class. These lipids are primarily nonpolar, causing them to self-associate and form barriers like cell membranes.

Complex lipids are amphipathic, meaning they have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts. Phosphoglycerides are an example of a complex lipid, crucial for building cell membranes.

Steroids are lipids containing a four-ring structure. Cholesterol is a key steroid that affects membrane fluidity, and it is the precursor for other steroid hormones.

Triglycerides are formed by combining glycerol with three fatty acids through a dehydration reaction. This reaction creates an ester linkage between the glycerol and the fatty acid.

Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group at one end. They typically have an even number of carbon atoms and are important components of lipids.

Lipids are essential for energy storage and are important energy sources alongside carbohydrates. This is because they contain high amounts of energy stored in their bonds.

The amount of energy required to change one gram of liquid into vapor.

Water molecules, when transitioning to vapor, take with them a large amount of heat, leading to cooling by evaporation.

Water molecules can dissociate into a positively charged hydrogen ion ($H^+$) and a negatively charged hydroxide ion ($OH^-$).

Molecules that are attracted to water and dissolve in water. They are often ionic or polar.

Molecules that are not attracted to water and do not dissolve in water. They are often nonpolar.

Molecules that have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. These are crucial for forming structures like biological membranes.

Large molecules formed by linking smaller units, or monomers, together.

The essential building blocks of living matter, including water and organic compounds.

Triglycerides are the most common type of lipid, composed of three fatty acid molecules attached to a glycerol molecule. They are the primary form of energy storage in both animals and plants.

Saturated fatty acids have all their carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms. This makes them straight and tightly packed, resulting in a solid state at room temperature. They are typically found in animal fats.

Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. This creates kinks in the molecule, preventing tight packing and making them liquid at room temperature. They are typically found in vegetable oils.

Phospholipids are complex lipids with a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and two hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails. This dual nature allows them to form membranes essential for cell function.

Phospholipids spontaneously arrange into a bilayer structure in cell membranes, with the hydrophilic heads facing outward and the hydrophobic tails facing each other in the interior. This creates a barrier that regulates the passage of molecules in and out of the cell.

Micelles are spherical structures formed by phospholipids, where the hydrophobic tails cluster together in the center and the hydrophilic heads face outward. This arrangement maximizes contact with water.

Liposomes are spherical structures formed by phospholipids where a lipid bilayer encloses an aqueous compartment. They are used in drug delivery to encapsulate and release drugs in a controlled manner.

A chemical bond between an electronegative atom and a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to another highly electronegative atom. It is responsible for many of water's unique properties.

The tendency of molecules of the same substance to stick together due to intermolecular forces, such as hydrogen bonds. This is why water forms droplets.

The attraction between different molecules

The ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces, defying gravity. This is due to the combined forces of cohesion and adhesion.

The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius. Water has a high specific heat due to hydrogen bonds.

Water molecules are polar because the oxygen atom has a slightly negative charge and the hydrogen atoms have slightly positive charges.

The measure of the force required to break the surface of a liquid. Water has a high surface tension due to its cohesive forces.

The uneven distribution of electrons in a molecule, resulting in a region of partial positive charge and a region of partial negative charge. This is due to the greater electronegativity of the oxygen atom.

A prokaryotic cell does not have a membrane-bound nucleus. Its genetic material (DNA) is located in a region called the nucleoid, but it is not enclosed within a separate membrane like in eukaryotic cells.

The cell's internal environment, composed of a fluid called cytosol and various organelles.

Water is essential for life, as it acts as a solvent for various molecules, participates in chemical reactions, and helps maintain cell shape.

Inorganic compounds do not contain carbon atoms, while organic compounds do. Examples of inorganic compounds include water and mineral ions.

Mineral ions are essential for various cellular processes. Cations like sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium have a positive charge, while anions like chloride, sulfate, phosphate, and carbonate have a negative charge.

The fluid portion of the cytoplasm, where many important cellular processes occur.

The large majority of a bacterial cell's composition is water, accounting for approximately 70-80%.

The remaining 20-30% of a bacterial cell's composition, excluding water, primarily consists of ions and organic molecules like carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, nucleotides, nucleic acids, and proteins.

The ability of organisms to change over time in response to their environment, leading to increased survival and reproduction.

The organization of life from atoms to the biosphere, where each level builds upon the previous one and has unique properties.

The fundamental unit of life, capable of independent existence, with all the characteristics of living matter.

The theory stating that all living organisms are composed of one or more cells, and that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

The arrangement of cell components from the simplest to the most complex, showing how each level contributes to the overall function of the cell.

The process by which organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to the evolution of adaptations.

The ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment.

The sum of all chemical reactions occurring within a living organism, essential for maintaining life.