CC 14-17

Carbohydrates classified by their type, specifically based on the number of sugar units.

Sugar units with a single sugar molecule.

Sugar units composed of two sugar molecules joined by a glycosidic bond.

Sugar units built from multiple sugar units linked by glycosidic bonds.

Sugars with a hemiacetal group, which can reduce other compounds.

The process by which glucose is broken down into pyruvate in the cytoplasm of cells, generating ATP.

A type of fermentation that occurs in muscle cells during intense exercise, where pyruvate is converted to lactate to regenerate NAD+.

A 3-carbon molecule produced by glycolysis, which can be converted to Acetyl CoA for entry into the TCA cycle or used to produce lactate.

A hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake and storage in cells.

A hormone produced by the pancreas that raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogen breakdown and glucose production.

A disorder characterized by abnormally low blood glucose levels, which can be caused by various factors including hyperinsulinism, hormonal deficiencies, or genetic disorders.

Hypoglycemia that occurs after 10 hours without food, often associated with hyperinsulinism, hormonal deficiencies, or genetic disorders,

Hypoglycemia that occurs within 4 hours of eating a meal, often triggered by a rapid rise in blood sugar followed by an exaggerated insulin response

A condition where the body produces insufficient insulin, leading to high blood sugar levels. There are several types, but the most common are Type 1 and Type 2.

A form of diabetes characterized by the body's inability to produce insulin, typically due to autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells.

A form of diabetes characterized by insulin resistance, where the body's cells don't respond properly to insulin, and eventual decline in insulin production.

A triad of symptoms, low blood sugar, and relief of symptoms with glucose administration, used to diagnose hypoglycemia.

A condition where the kidneys excrete abnormally high levels of albumin into the urine. It is an early indicator of diabetic nephropathy, a complication of diabetes that damages the kidneys.

A blood test that measures the amount of albumin in the blood. It's used to assess liver function, as low levels can indicate liver disease.

A chemical method for measuring glucose levels in blood or urine. It relies on the reduction of copper ions to cuprous ions by glucose in the presence of a reagent.

A specific type of copper reduction method where glucose is reduced into cuprous ions in the presence of phosphomolybdic acid. This reduces the reagent to a molybdenum blue, leading to a color change.

A specific type of copper reduction method where glucose is reduced into cuprous ions in the presence of arsenomolybdic acid. This reduces the reagent to arsenomolybdenum blue, also causing a color change.

A specific type of copper reduction method where glucose is reduced into cuprous ions in the presence of neocuproine. This creates a colored complex used to measure glucose levels.

A chemical method for measuring glucose levels in blood or urine that relies on the reduction of ferric ions by glucose. This converts ferricyanide to ferrocyanide, which is measured spectrophotometrically.

A chemical method for measuring glucose levels in blood or urine that involves the condensation reaction between glucose and o-toluidine. This reaction creates a Schiff's base, which is colored and directly proportional to the glucose concentration.

A genetic disorder caused by a deficiency in an enzyme involved in galactose metabolism, leading to accumulation of galactose in the body.

A group of genetic disorders characterized by the accumulation of glycogen in various tissues due to deficiencies in enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism.

A type of glycogen storage disease where glycogen accumulates primarily in the liver, leading to symptoms like enlarged liver, low blood sugar, and growth problems.

The most common type of hepatic glycogen storage disease, characterized by low blood sugar, lactic acid build-up, and high uric acid levels.

A type of glycogen storage disease where glycogen accumulates primarily in muscles, resulting in exercise intolerance, muscle cramps, fatigue, and weakness.

A specific type of glycogen storage disease caused by a deficiency in the enzyme glycogen debranching enzyme, resulting in both liver and muscle involvement.

A specific type of glycogen storage disease caused by a deficiency in the enzyme glycogen branching enzyme, leading to accumulation of abnormally structured glycogen in the liver, resulting in hepatomegaly and cirrhosis.

A specific type of muscle glycogen storage disease caused by a deficiency in the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase, leading to exercise intolerance and muscle cramps.

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a serious complication of diabetes characterized by high blood sugar levels, ketone production, and acidosis. It develops when the body can't use glucose for energy and instead starts to break down fat for fuel, producing ketones as a byproduct. Ketones are acidic and can build up in the blood, leading to acidosis.

Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar non-ketotic coma (HHNS) is a serious complication of diabetes marked by extremely high blood sugar levels, dehydration, and altered mental state. It occurs when the body produces insufficient insulin to use glucose for energy, leading to a hyperosmolar state due to high glucose in the blood.

Polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia (3Ps) refer to excessive urination, thirst, and hunger, respectively. These symptoms are common in uncontrolled diabetes due to the body's inability to use glucose effectively, leading to increased fluid loss and a need for more energy.

Microvascular complications of diabetes include damage to small blood vessels affecting the eyes (retinopathy), kidneys (nephropathy), and nerves (neuropathy). This damage is caused by elevated blood sugar levels over time, leading to impaired blood flow and tissue damage.

Macrovascular complications of diabetes refer to damage to large blood vessels, leading to increased risk of coronary artery disease (CAD), stroke (CVA), and peripheral artery disease (PAD). This damage is linked to elevated blood sugar, hypertension, and dyslipidemia.

To screen for diabetes, adults aged 24 years and older should undergo a test. There are three common tests: Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG), Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT), and HbA1c. These test help identify high blood sugar levels indicative of diabetes.

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) is a condition where diabetes develops during pregnancy. It typically resolves after delivery but increases the risk of future diabetes for both mother and child. Screening for GDM is usually done between 24-28 weeks of gestation using a glucose tolerance test.

The one-step method for GDM screening involves a 50g glucose load followed by a 1-hour plasma glucose (1-h PG) test. A result of ≥140 mg/dL indicates a need for further testing. The Two-step method involves a 50g glucose load followed by a 100g glucose load if the 1-h PG result is ≥140 mg/dL. Results of FPG ≥105 mg/dL, 1-h PG ≥180 mg/dL, or 2-h PG ≥155 mg/dL on the 100g glucose load confirm GDM.