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Questions and Answers
What hormone is primarily secreted by alpha cells of the pancreas?
What hormone is primarily secreted by alpha cells of the pancreas?
Which condition is characterized by low blood sugar occurring after prolonged fasting?
Which condition is characterized by low blood sugar occurring after prolonged fasting?
Which carbohydrate classification includes sugars with multiple units?
Which carbohydrate classification includes sugars with multiple units?
What is the primary effect of cortisol on metabolism?
What is the primary effect of cortisol on metabolism?
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What distinguishes aldoses from ketoses in carbohydrates?
What distinguishes aldoses from ketoses in carbohydrates?
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Which of the following hormones antagonizes the effects of insulin?
Which of the following hormones antagonizes the effects of insulin?
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Which statement is true regarding the general properties of carbohydrates?
Which statement is true regarding the general properties of carbohydrates?
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What type of hypoglycemia typically occurs within four hours after eating a meal?
What type of hypoglycemia typically occurs within four hours after eating a meal?
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Which of the following is an example of a hexose?
Which of the following is an example of a hexose?
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Which of the following metabolites is not directly involved in glycolysis?
Which of the following metabolites is not directly involved in glycolysis?
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What type of carbohydrate contains exactly three carbon atoms?
What type of carbohydrate contains exactly three carbon atoms?
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What hormone is secreted in response to low blood glucose levels?
What hormone is secreted in response to low blood glucose levels?
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Which metabolic disorder is characterized by excessive insulin production?
Which metabolic disorder is characterized by excessive insulin production?
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What is the reference range for serum albumin levels?
What is the reference range for serum albumin levels?
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Which condition is indicated by microalbuminuria?
Which condition is indicated by microalbuminuria?
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What range of albumin-creatinine ratio qualifies as persistent albuminuria?
What range of albumin-creatinine ratio qualifies as persistent albuminuria?
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How often should urine collections be performed to assess persistent albuminuria?
How often should urine collections be performed to assess persistent albuminuria?
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What is a common method for preventing glycolysis in glucose measurement specimens?
What is a common method for preventing glycolysis in glucose measurement specimens?
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Which method is used in the copper reduction test for glucose measurement?
Which method is used in the copper reduction test for glucose measurement?
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What consequence can dextrose contamination have on glucose assay results?
What consequence can dextrose contamination have on glucose assay results?
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Which of the following is involved in the condensation method for glucose measurement?
Which of the following is involved in the condensation method for glucose measurement?
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What are the common symptoms associated with diabetes mellitus?
What are the common symptoms associated with diabetes mellitus?
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Which of the following is NOT a microvascular complication of diabetes?
Which of the following is NOT a microvascular complication of diabetes?
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What is the recommended screening age for diabetes in adults?
What is the recommended screening age for diabetes in adults?
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In the two-step method for screening gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), what should be done after a 1-h plasma glucose (PG) reading of ≥140 mg/dL?
In the two-step method for screening gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), what should be done after a 1-h plasma glucose (PG) reading of ≥140 mg/dL?
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Which of the following represents a normal fasting plasma glucose level?
Which of the following represents a normal fasting plasma glucose level?
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What should be the fasting duration before conducting a fasting plasma glucose test?
What should be the fasting duration before conducting a fasting plasma glucose test?
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Which of the following is a diagnostic criterion for gestational diabetes mellitus using the two-step method?
Which of the following is a diagnostic criterion for gestational diabetes mellitus using the two-step method?
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Which of the following is a characteristic long-term complication of diabetes?
Which of the following is a characteristic long-term complication of diabetes?
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What is one of the components of Whipple's triad of hypoglycemia?
What is one of the components of Whipple's triad of hypoglycemia?
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Which of the following is a symptom of neuroglycopenic hypoglycemia?
Which of the following is a symptom of neuroglycopenic hypoglycemia?
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What type of diabetes mellitus is characterized by absolute insulin deficiency due to immune-mediated destruction of beta cells?
What type of diabetes mellitus is characterized by absolute insulin deficiency due to immune-mediated destruction of beta cells?
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In the context of insulinoma diagnosis, what is considered a change in glucose level?
In the context of insulinoma diagnosis, what is considered a change in glucose level?
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Which factor is NOT part of the diagnostic criteria for insulinoma?
Which factor is NOT part of the diagnostic criteria for insulinoma?
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Which of the following describes insulin resistance?
Which of the following describes insulin resistance?
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What is a common symptom of neurogenic hypoglycemia?
What is a common symptom of neurogenic hypoglycemia?
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What is the threshold value for insulin to be considered in the diagnostic criteria for insulinoma?
What is the threshold value for insulin to be considered in the diagnostic criteria for insulinoma?
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What deficiency causes galactosemia?
What deficiency causes galactosemia?
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Which of the following symptoms is NOT associated with galactosemia?
Which of the following symptoms is NOT associated with galactosemia?
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Which glycogen storage disease is most commonly associated with hypoglycemia?
Which glycogen storage disease is most commonly associated with hypoglycemia?
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The enzyme deficiency in McArdle disease affects which process?
The enzyme deficiency in McArdle disease affects which process?
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Which type of glycogen storage disease primarily presents with muscle cramps and exercise intolerance?
Which type of glycogen storage disease primarily presents with muscle cramps and exercise intolerance?
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Which of the following enzymes is deficient in Gierke disease?
Which of the following enzymes is deficient in Gierke disease?
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Which symptom is characteristic of hepatic glycogenoses?
Which symptom is characteristic of hepatic glycogenoses?
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Which enzyme is deficient in Andersen disease?
Which enzyme is deficient in Andersen disease?
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Study Notes
Carbohydrates Classification
- Carbohydrates are classified by the number of sugar units (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides), the number of carbons (trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses), the location of the CO functional group (aldoses, ketoses), and stereochemistry (D and L enantiomers).
Monosaccharides
- Monosaccharides are simple sugars, the basic building blocks of carbohydrates.
- Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
- Glucose is a common monosaccharide, essential for the brain.
- Fructose is found in fruits and honey.
- Galactose is a component of lactose.
Types of Carbohydrates
- Monosaccharides: single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose).
- Disaccharides: two sugar units linked together (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
- Polysaccharides: many sugar units linked together (e.g., starch, glycogen).
Aldoses and Ketoses
- Aldoses have an aldehyde group (-CHO) at the end of the carbon chain (e.g., glucose).
- Ketoses have a ketone group (C=O) within the carbon chain (e.g., fructose).
D and L Enantiomers
- D and L enantiomers are mirror images of each other.
- Carbohydrates in living organisms are almost always D-isomers.
D-Isomers
- D-isomers are the most common type of carbohydrate in living organisms.
Carbohydrate Structure
- Shown are structural diagrams of various monosaccharides (e.g., D-glyceraldehyde, D-erythrose, L-ribose, D-glucose, D-galactose, D-fructose).
Hormonal Regulation of Glucose Metabolism
- Insulin and glucagon are key hormones regulating blood glucose levels.
- Insulin promotes glucose uptake and storage.
- Glucagon promotes glucose release into the bloodstream.
Disorders of Glucose Metabolism
- Hypoglycemia: low blood glucose levels.
- Two types:
- Post-absorptive/Fasting- occurs after 10 hours without food; secondary to hyperinsulinism, hormonal deficiencies, genetic disorders, autoimmunity or drug-induced.
- Post-prandial/Alimentary/Reactive- occurs usually within 4 hours after eating a meal.
- Diabetes mellitus (DM): elevated blood glucose levels.
- Classified as Type 1 (autoimmune or idiopathic), Type 2 (insulin resistance), and other types.
- Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) is glucose intolerance that occurs during pregnancy, usually resolves after delivery but may become type 2 DM.
Diagnostic Criteria for DM
- Fasting plasma glucose (FPG): levels used in diagnosing or screening for diabetes.
- Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) 2-hour post-load glucose level.
- Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c): a measure of average blood glucose levels over several months.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the classification of carbohydrates, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. This quiz will also cover the different types based on their structure and functional groups. Challenge yourself to identify key examples and characteristics of each category.
