Carbohydrates and Their Types

Organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a general formula Cn(H2O)n, often serving as energy sources or structural components.

Simple sugars, the fundamental building blocks of carbohydrates.

Monosaccharides containing an aldehyde group at one end.

Monosaccharides containing a ketone group, usually at carbon 2.

Different spatial arrangements of atoms arranged in mirror image form in sugars. D and L designations are based on the configuration around the chiral carbon.

Sugars differing in configuration at only one asymmetric carbon atom.

Formation of ring structures (pyranose or furanose) from linear monosaccharides through intramolecular reactions.

Reactions forming ring structures by connecting an aldehyde or ketone group with a hydroxyl group on another carbon.

A two-dimensional representation of cyclic sugars, depicting the ring structure as almost flat.

A six-membered ring formed by the intramolecular reaction of an aldehyde or ketone group with a hydroxyl group on another carbon.

Pyranose sugars can exist in two major conformations due to the tetrahedral nature of carbon bonds: chair and boat.

A sugar derivative where the carbonyl group (aldehyde or ketone) is reduced to a hydroxyl group.

A sugar derivative formed by oxidizing the aldehyde group at C1 or the hydroxyl group at C6 to a carboxylic acid.

A sugar derivative where a hydroxyl group is replaced by a hydrogen atom.

A negatively charged sugar derivative, often found as a terminal residue in oligosaccharide chains of glycoproteins.

Disaccharides are carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharides linked by a glycosidic bond.

A glycosidic bond is a covalent bond formed between the anomeric carbon of a sugar and a hydroxyl group of another molecule, like another sugar.

Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose linked by an α(1→2) glycosidic bond.

Lactose is a disaccharide composed of galactose and glucose linked by a β(1→4) glycosidic bond.

Homopoly: Polysaccharides composed of only one type of monosaccharide. Heteropoly: Polysaccharides composed of more than one type of monosaccharide.

Polysaccharides play vital roles in energy storage and maintaining structural integrity in organisms.

The interconversion of α and β anomers of a sugar in an aqueous solution. This happens because the open-chain form of the sugar is in equilibrium with the cyclic forms, allowing the anomeric carbon to change configuration.

Sugars can be oxidized (gain oxygen) to form different types of acids. Oxidation happens at the carbonyl (CHO) group or hydroxyl (OH) groups of sugars.

A sugar acid formed when the carbonyl (CHO) group of an aldose is oxidized to a carboxyl (COOH) group.

A sugar acid formed when a hydroxyl (OH) group on the sixth carbon (C6) of a hexose is oxidized to a carboxyl (COOH) group.

A sugar acid formed when both the carbonyl group (CHO) and the hydroxyl group (OH) on the sixth carbon (C6) of an aldose are oxidized to carboxyl groups (COOH).

A sugar that can reduce other compounds (like Tollen's reagent) because it has a free carbonyl group (CHO) that can be oxidized.

A reaction of an aldose with phenylhydrazine that produces an osazone. This reaction forms a characteristic crystalline derivative that can be used to identify the sugar.

A unique polymer that forms bacterial cell walls, preventing them from bursting due to internal osmotic pressure. It's made up of linear polysaccharide chains cross-linked by short peptides.

Penicillin inhibits the cross-linking enzyme (transpeptidase) in peptidoglycan synthesis, preventing the formation of a strong bacterial cell wall, ultimately killing bacteria.

Repeating disaccharide units, made up of an amino sugar (glucosamine or galactosamine) and a negatively charged carboxylate or sulfate group, often attached to proteins to form proteoglycans, found in animal cells.

Large molecules that are essentially 'protein cores' with covalently attached glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). These are found in animal cells and contribute to structural support and cell signaling.

Proteins with covalently linked oligosaccharide chains. These sugars are attached to either the amino group of asparagine (N-linkage) or the hydroxyl group of serine/threonine (O-linkage).

Glycoproteins have a smaller percentage of carbohydrate compared to proteoglycans. They are differentiated by the nature, quantity, and arrangement of their sugar side chains.

The GAG chain in a proteoglycan is linked to its protein core through a specific carbohydrate linkage. This unique connection is crucial for the structure and function of proteoglycans.

Proteoglycans are large, complex molecules that form gels in the extracellular matrix (ECM). These gels act as filters, controlling the movement of molecules and cells based on size and charge. They also bind to fibrous proteins, like collagen, to maintain ECM structure.

GAGs are long, unbranched polysaccharide chains that are negatively charged. They are a key component of proteoglycans and form the gel-like structure in the ECM.

A major proteoglycan found in cartilage, it has a large molecular weight (millions of Daltons) and can bind over 100 GAG chains.

A smaller proteoglycan secreted by fibroblasts, it has only one GAG chain and interacts with collagen fibers.

Carbohydrates on the surface of red blood cells act as antigens, determining blood group types (e.g., A, B, O). These antigens trigger an immune response if a person receives blood from a different blood group.