Carbohydrates and their Classification

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketone alcohols
• These contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Hydrogen and oxygen have the same ratio as in water

Classification of Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are classified into sugars and polysaccharides
• Simple sugars are monosaccharides and cannot be hydrolyzed
• Disaccharides yield 2 monosaccharide molecules upon hydrolysis
• Trisaccharides yield 3 monosaccharide molecules
• Tetrasaccharides yield 4 monosaccharide molecules
• Monosaccharides are classified based on the number of carbon atoms:
  • Trioses have 3 carbon atoms
  • Tetroses have 4 carbon atoms
  • Pentoses have 5 carbon atoms
  • Hexoses have 6 carbon atoms
• Sugars are water-soluble, crystalline and they taste sweet
• Complex polysaccharides include starch, inulin, and cellulose can usually be hydrolyzed

Hexosans and Plant Structure

• Hexose is called hexosans
• Starch, which yields glucose, is also called glucosan
• Inulin, which yields fructose, is a fructosan
• Cellulose, a glucose polysaccharide with beta -1,4 linkages, forms plant cell walls
• Hemicelluloses are high-molecular-weight polysaccharides, more soluble and easily hydrolyzed than cellulose
• Pentose, sugars with formula CHO include arabinose, xylose, and ribose.
• Pentoses come from hydrolysis of pentosans, like xylan from deciduous tree wood
• Pentoses can also be a result of gums and mucilages hydrolysis

Key Monosaccharides

• Monosaccharides are simple sugars, ketonic or aldehydic polyhydroxy alcohol substitution products
• The simplest monosaccharide is DIOSE, OH-CH2-CHO but it does not occur freely in nature
• Aldehydic and ketonic trioses, like glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone, exist as phosphate esters
• Some organisms can oxidize glycerin to dihydroxyacetone
• Tetroses are rare in the free state
• Pentoses, are found in nature, from hydrolysis of hemicelluloses, gums, and mucilages
• Hexoses are vital monosaccharides in plants, the first sugars synthesized, used to build polysaccharides
• There are 16 possible aldohexoses and 8 ketohexoses, totaling 48 isomers when including alpha and beta forms

Glucose and Fructose

• Only fructose (levulose) and glucose (dextrose) of monosaccharides occur freely in plants; and found in sweet fruits, honey, and invert sugar
• Hydrolyzing starch yields glucose while inulin yields fructose
• Glucose is an aldohexose, or a polyhydroxy alcohol with an aldehyde group
• Fructose is a ketohexose, having a ketone group
• These groups have reducing properties
• Hexoses are open-chain 6-membered compounds with five carbon atoms having alcohol substituents and the sixth as part of an aldehyde or ketone group.
• Glucose and other hexoses exist in both cyclic and straight-chain forms
• Fructose is more complex and exists in two cyclic forms: fructopyranose and furanose
• Fructopyranose is the crystalline sugar structure, and furanose is has a 5-membered ring, mostly present in oligosaccharides and polysaccharides
• Phosphate esters of heptoses (7-carbon sugars) are essential for glucose metabolism and photosynthesis
• An 8-carbon sugar, D-glycero-D-marinooctulose, was isolated from avocado pulp and the rock-garden plant Sedu

Disaccharides

• Sucrose is the only disaccharide occurring abundantly in plants' free state, rarely maltose is also found in cell sap
• Sucrose is in fruit juices, sugar cane, sugar beet, and maple sap
• Upon hydrolysis, sucrose yields equal amounts of glucose and fructose
• Sucrose is a nonreducing sugar
• Maltose is produced from starch hydrolysis during barley and grain germination via diastatic fermentation
• It is a reducing sugar and yields 2 glucose molecules upon hydrolysis
• Commonly occurring sugars in vegetable drugs are glucose, fructose, sucrose, and maltose
• Mannose (in mannosans) and galactose (in lactose and raffinose) occur to alimited extent in nature
• Trehalose (in fungi) and lactose (milk sugar) are disaccharides
• Lactose is a reducing sugar due to having a functional aldehyde group, while trehalose is nonreducing

Sucrose

• Sucrose, is derived from Saccharum officinarurm Lin (Fam. Gramineae), Beta vulgaris Linn (Chenopodiaceae)
• It contains no additives, and it is widely distributed in plants
• Commercially, it is obtained from sugar cane and sugar beets, and it can also be extracted from sugar maple
• Production of sucrose includes crushing sugar cane stems using heavy iron rollers
• Lime is used to neutralize plant acids and coagulate albumins
• The solution is filtered, decolorized with sulfur dioxide, concentrated, and crystallized

Molasses, Uses of Sucrose

• When sucrose crystals are no longer obtainable, the dark-colored molasses is a residual syrup utilized in foods, animal feed, and ethyl alcohol production
• Sucrose is obtained from sugar beets which involves washing and slicing them into “cassettes”
• Soluble constituents are extracted using hot water, and the crude solution is then purified
• Sucrose is a pharmaceutical necessity for syrups, acting as a demulcent and nutrient
• In sufficient aqueous concentration, it is bacteriostatic and preservative
• Sucrose masks tastes in troches and tablets and slows oxidation in preparations

Dextrose/Glucose

• Dextrose, or D-glucose, occurs naturally in grapes and fruits
• It is obtained by controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of starch
• High-conversion hydrolysates undergo rigorous purification to produce 99.5 to 100% pure, crystalline dextrose
• Dextrose is a nutrient that may be administered orally, by enema, subcutaneously or intravenously
• It is in dextrose injections, alcohol and dextrose injection, dextrose and sodium chloride tablets, dopamine hydrochloride and dextrose injections, lidocaine hydrochloride and dextrose injections, and potassium chloride and dextrose injections
• Dextrose is also in anticoagulant citrate dextrose and anticoagulant citrate phosphate dextrose, which is used as an anticoagulant for storing whole blood

Starch: Chemistry and Properties

• Starch is a mix of two structurally different polysaccharides
  • Amylose is a linear molecule of 250-300 D-glucopyranose units, uniformly linked by alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds
  • Ainylopectin consists of 1000+ glucose units connected with alpha 1,4 linkages
• Amylose is more water-soluble than amylopectin, making it possible to separate the two components
• Complexing and precipitating amylose with agents such as alcohols or nitroparaffins improves separation efficiency
• Amylose reacts with iodine to form a deep blue complex; amylopectin yields a blue-violet or purple color
• Most starches consist of 25% amylose and 75% amylopectin
• Certain waxy or glutinous starches are made of no amylose or small amounts (less than 6%)

Breakdown and Uses of Starch

• Alpha-amylase, an enzyme in saliva and pancreatic juice, hydrolyzes starch by randomly cleaving α-1,4-glucosidic linkages
• This yields a mix of glucose, maltose, amylopectin and branched/unbranched oligosaccharides
• Starch forms colloidal solutions rather than true ones
• A cold water suspension of starch swells and ruptures in boiling water, forming a translucent sol that sets to a firm jelly upon cooling
• Cold concentrate of caustic alkalies, chloral hydrate, ammonium thiocyanate, or hydrochloric acid causes starch granules to swell/rupture creating pastes
• Pharmaceutically, corn (Zea mays L), wheat (Triticum aestivum L), or potato tubers (Solanum tuberosum) can turn into Starch
• Uses as dusting powders/pharmaceutical aid, tablet filler, binder, and disintegrant
• Purified starch amylose is useful for tablet functions and can be swallowed as an antidote for iodine poisoning
• Has commercial applications like paper sizing, cloth sizing, and laundry starching
• Serves as the starting material for liquid glucose (corn syrup), dextrose, dextrins, and high-fructose sweeteners

Modified Starches

• Pregelatinized is starch processed chemically/mechanically in water to rupture all/part of the granules, and then dried
• This is done to enhance compressibility, flow, making it slightly soluble/soluble in water for use in tablets
• Sodium starch glycolate is a semisynthetic carboxymethyl ether sodium salt of starch
• This has a function to disintegrate in tablet formulas
• Heta starch is 90% amylopectin that can be used as a plasma expander (6% solution)
• Heta starch can have adjunct therapy to address shock from hemorrhage, burns, surgery, sepsis, or other trauma.

Liquid Glucose Composition and Production

• Liquid glucose comes from incomplete hydrolysis of starch
• The result is a thick syrup, colorless/yellowish, odorless and sweet
• Includes dextrose, dextrins, maltose, and water and uses as an agent of pharmaceutic necessity
• In the USA washing with diluted hydrochloric acid in corn-starch
• Heated for 22 minutes at 30 lb pressure
• The acid that results gets neutralized, centrifuged, filtered and evaporated to syrupy condition

Fructose: Production and Uses

• Fructose is obtained by inverting aqueous solutions of sucrose and separating fructose from glucose
• During sucrose hydrolysis, equal amounts of fructose and dextrose are formed
• It occurs naturally in sweet fruits and honey
• Fructose is primarily sourced from enzymatically prepared high fructose syrup but also from inulin hydrolysis
• Fructose food for diabetics, often in infant formulas
• Given parenterally, produces less urinary secretion than glucose
• It is present in fructose injection and fructose and sodium chloride injection
• These preparations are fluid, nutrient, and electrolyte replenishers administered intravenously or subcutaneously
• Fructose is about half as sweet as glucose, of interest to those who are calorie-conscious
• High-fructose sweeteners are made by controlled enzymatic isomerization of glucose using immobilized glucose isomerase from Streptomyces
• High fructose corn syrups with up to 90% fructose are commercially available

Lactose: Composition and Properties

• Cow's milk is either fresh or pasteurized from Bos taurus Linn (Fam. Bovidae) without changes
• Its a opaque, white fluid contains little fat globules in it, and also albumen, casein, lactose, and inorganic salts
• An 80-90% water, a 3% casein, and a 5% lactose
• Contained in milk: 0.1 - 1% salt, and fat 2.5 - 5 %. Rich in vitamins, too

Milk By-Products

• If waiting a few hours after milk production small fat globules increase
• Fats turn to butter if churned , turning into buttermilk
• Skim milk: liquid left after skimming fat, containing rennin and forms curd, treated to form a liquid coagum and whey: lactose and inorganic salts results
• Created to make cheese
• Condensed milk: made from autoclaving a vacuum of partially evaporating milk sterilization
• Malted milk: extracts made from evaporating and using low-heat to avoid destroying enzymes

Lactose: Hydrolysis and Uses

• Milk is a main source of the nutrient: Lactose ( sugar)
• The description of how lactose hydrolyzes and what happens
• Its hydrolyzed through a certain enzyme: LACTASE ( other enzymes do not work)
• Lactose easily has lactic and butyric fermentations
• The usages
• Uses to dilute tablets, less-sweeter that can dissolve
• Nutrients for infants
• Good for flora because causes the perfect substrate for lactobacilli.
• Inert mixing of pills
• Lactulose is formed after synthesis for an alkaline version. Gives fructose, lactose upon being broken. Colon-bacteria can ferment lactulose and therefore release acids and laxative.

Lactulose

• A 10-20g Lactulose daily is an effect constipation treatment, mostly decrease ammonia volume in bloodstream
• A 20-30g dosage should be taken with water, 3-4 times daily

Xylose

• Xylose or Xylan (wood/sugar) is a pentose made by diluting with wood parts. Its not processed by most mammilian bodies
• FDA, can be used in intestinal disorders. Is shown through excretions from urination (malabsorptions)
• This causes disease (celiac, pellagra etc (sprue, Croho's disease(regional ileitis))

Inulin

• Inulin (hydrous), D-fructofuranose, residues linked. Found is family Compostiae
• High amount in chicory. Is from sap
• Its usually formed to to Spherite through time in alcohol mediums
• Used to know about special lab tests in renals
• Absorbs through only glomeruli.
• Its injected with a 10g, into 100ml sodium chloride through IV's

Dextran Production and Use

• an a-1,6-links sucrose is made of the enzyme polyglucan transglucosylase (dextran sucrase)
• By controlling Depolymerization an average weigh range (40,000-75,000) can be maintained for Dextran
• In an a6% this is a blood thickener if in trauma situations
• Dextran is good for using because it doesn't thicken much from plasmas viscosity and is prolonged in 1,6 linkage, if slowly cleaving

Dextran: Additional Properties and Applications

• Dextrans can cross space with other molecules and excretes. 10 percent is to treat shocks
• Functions to have thickness/increase flow to clots through interferences
• Colloidal solution mix's the water with the hydrolyzed version
• Only through IV and intramuscular usage

CARAMEL

• Heated in water for a while until taste is gone, makes brown syrup with alkali. Some compounds make it work like NaCl
• Used in drinks, beverages, medicines and colorings

Modified Celluloses

• Powdered cellulose processed after plant fibers are alpha-cellulose
• It can be used as diluents and self binders
• Microcrystalline cellulose makes minerals in the material, used in acids

Cellulose Derivatives

• Methylcellulose(cellulose ether) is a chloride mix that's white
• Ophthal solutions (0.5-1%) topical applications because artificial tears
• Ethylcellulose(cellulose ethers) film coating binders
• Hydroxyethyl cellulose is thickening applications
• Hydroxypropyl cellulose(cellulose ethers) contains thickeners and liquid applications

Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose

• PG- ether, cellulose groups connected from links
• Suspending applications topical

Gums and Mucilages

• Gum is a hydrocolloid for herbs. Can be a salt
• They are protective fluids/substances after injured
• Derivatives can be for properties a number hydrocolloids exist

Gum Structure and Properties

• Gums contain Galactose, arabinose etc. A methyl ether is an application for polymers
• Pharmacy applications tablet binders/laxatives (for adhesives)
• Precipitated from alcohol and leads
• Mucilage and gums are made to be sticky but mucilage are normal and gums are for pathology