40 Questions
What is the primary cause of cancer in the body?
Uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of the body
Which type of cancer arises from epithelial tissue found in the internal and external lining of the body?
Carcinoma
What is the effect of an inactivating mutation on a gene?
Causes reduced function of a gene
What is the primary difference between somatic mutations and germline mutations?
Germline mutations are inherited, while somatic mutations are acquired
What is the purpose of the Two Hit Hypothesis?
To explain why individuals with one mutated gene allele are not affected by cancer
What is the increased risk for women who inherit a BRCA1/2 mutation?
Breast cancer
What is the effect of activating mutations in oncogenes?
Causes the gene to be expressed at the wrong time, at the wrong level, or with a new function
What is the type of cancer that arises from connective tissue found in bones, tendons, cartilage, muscle, and fat?
Sarcoma
What is the primary function of the immune system in the human body?
To surveil and destroy foreign cells, viruses, and pathogens
Which of the following cells are responsible for engulfing and destroying foreign particles?
Macrophages and natural killer cells
What is the role of PDL-1 and PDL-2 antigens in cancer cells?
To inhibit the immune response against cancer cells
What is the consequence of the presence of a tumor in the body?
An inflammatory signal that brings red blood cells to the tumor site
What is the term for the process by which tumor cells move from the primary tumor to a different organ via lymph and/or blood?
Metastasis
What is the characteristic of benign tumors?
Ability to grow uncontrollably but not invade neighboring tissue
What is the most common secondary site for cancer metastasis?
Lung and liver
What is the primary consequence of metastasis?
Increased risk of mortality and morbidity
What must happen to both copies of a gene for it to be cancer-inducing?
Both copies of the gene must be affected
What happens to normal human cells after they reach the Hayflick's limit?
They go into the G0 phase of the cell cycle
What enables cancer cells to exceed the Hayflick's limit?
The ability to elongate their telomeres using telomerase
What is the function of the tumor suppressor gene p53?
To stop the cell cycle upon detection of DNA damage
What is the primary reason why organisms with traits that help them survive and reproduce are more likely to pass their characteristics to their offspring?
Because they are more adapted to their environment
What happens to normal cells in response to abundant DNA damage and other cellular stresses?
They initiate apoptosis
How do cancer cells avoid normal growth suppressor signals?
By avoiding the G1 checkpoint
What is the significance of variation existing among individuals within a population?
It provides the raw material for evolution to occur
Why do cancer cells have the ability to proliferate?
Due to the over-activity of oncogenes
What is the primary driver of evolutionary change in a population?
Natural selection
What is the fate of an individual with variations that make them poorly adapted to their environment?
They are less likely to survive and reproduce
What is the difference in glucose breakdown between normal and cancer cells?
Normal cells break down glucose to pyruvate, while cancer cells break it down to lactate
What is the estimated percentage of species that have ever lived on Earth that have become extinct?
99%
What is the primary difference between gradualism and the alternative theory of evolution?
The rate of evolutionary change
What is the relationship between an organism's genotype and phenotype?
The genotype determines the phenotype
What is the primary outcome of evolution occurring in a population over time?
The population's genes and their frequencies change
What is punctuated equilibrium?
A theory that speciation occurs rapidly, with long periods of genetic equilibrium
What is the process of breeding animals with desired traits to produce offspring with those traits?
Selective breeding
What is the term for creating an organism that is an exact genetic copy of another?
Cloning
What is the risk of inbreeding?
Higher risk of recessive genetic disorders
What is the term for breeding two individuals with unlike characteristics to produce the best in both organisms?
Hybridization
What is the result of punctuated equilibrium?
Rapid speciation followed by long periods of genetic equilibrium
What is genetic engineering used for?
To create genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
What is the term for the breeding of organisms that are genetically similar to maintain desired traits?
Inbreeding
Study Notes
What is Cancer?
- Cancer is caused by an uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of the body
- Caused by an accumulation of detrimental variations in the genome over a lifetime
Types of Cancer
- Carcinoma: arises in epithelial tissue in internal and external linings of the body
- Adenocarcinomas develop in organs or glands
- Squamous cell carcinomas develop in squamous epithelium of organs, including skin, bladder, esophagus, and lung
- Sarcoma: arises from connective tissue in bones, tendons, cartilage, muscle, and fat
- Leukemia: cancers of the blood that originate in bone marrow
- Lymphoma: cancers of the lymph system
Mutations
- Activating mutations: cause genes to be expressed at the wrong time, level, or function
- Inactivating mutations: reduce function of a gene (less RNA or protein is made)
- Somatic mutations: acquired by somatic cells (all cells except eggs or sperm) and passed to daughter cells
- Germline mutations (inherited mutations): present in germ cells (eggs or sperm) and inherited by offspring
Two Hit Hypothesis
- Humans have two copies of every gene (diploid): one maternal, one paternal
- Both copies of the gene must be affected for a gene to be cancer-inducing
Cellular Hallmarks of Cancer
- Normal human cells have a finite ability to undergo mitosis due to telomere shortening
- Cancer cells can exceed Hayflick's limit and continue to undergo mitosis
- Cancer cells elongate telomeres using telomerase
- Cancer cells avoid normal growth suppressor signals in the G1 checkpoint
- Tumor suppressor genes, like p53, regulate cell death and proliferation
- Cancer cells have altered metabolism, proliferating and diverting metabolites for useful processes
- Cancer cells evade immune surveillance and can inhibit T cells with PDL-1/PDL-2 antigen
Metastasis
- The process by which tumor cells move from the primary tumor to a different organ via lymph and/or blood
- Benign tumors are masses of cells that cannot invade neighboring tissue or metastasize
- Malignant tumors are capable of invading neighboring tissue and metastasizing
- Dangers of metastasis include treatment for pain, and the need for ongoing treatment
Evolution
- The scientific theory that all living organisms on Earth descended from a common ancestor
- Principles of Darwinian Evolution: variation, heritability, overproduction, reproductive advantage, and adaptation
- Natural Selection: organisms with traits that help them survive and reproduce pass their characteristics to their offspring
- Variation exists among individuals within a population
- Extinction is a natural and important part of evolution
Genetic Engineering
- Changing the DNA in living organisms to create something new
- Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are the result of genetic engineering
- Artificial selection: breeders choose which organisms to mate to produce offspring with desired traits
- Hybridization: crossing two individuals with unlike characteristics to produce the best in both organisms
- Inbreeding: breeding of organisms that are genetically similar to maintain desired traits
This quiz covers the basics of cancer, including its causes, types, and characteristics. Learn about the abnormal cell division and genetic mutations that lead to cancer.
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