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Questions and Answers
What genetic test is commonly available only for women with a strong family history of breast cancer?
What genetic test is commonly available only for women with a strong family history of breast cancer?
What is a characteristic of the Philadelphia (Ph) chromosome in the context of health?
What is a characteristic of the Philadelphia (Ph) chromosome in the context of health?
During the viral replication process, what mechanism allows retroviruses to integrate their genetic material into the host's DNA?
During the viral replication process, what mechanism allows retroviruses to integrate their genetic material into the host's DNA?
What condition is characterized by increased growth of granulocytes?
What condition is characterized by increased growth of granulocytes?
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Which statement accurately describes oncogenic viruses?
Which statement accurately describes oncogenic viruses?
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What is a common endocrine effect associated with hypercalcaemia?
What is a common endocrine effect associated with hypercalcaemia?
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Which condition is most likely associated with osteolytic bone lesions?
Which condition is most likely associated with osteolytic bone lesions?
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What is the role of RANKL in the context of multiple myeloma?
What is the role of RANKL in the context of multiple myeloma?
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Which of the following symptoms is NOT a characteristic of hypercalcaemia?
Which of the following symptoms is NOT a characteristic of hypercalcaemia?
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What characterizes cerebellar degeneration in relation to multiple myeloma?
What characterizes cerebellar degeneration in relation to multiple myeloma?
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What is a key distinguishing factor between benign growth disorders and malignant diseases?
What is a key distinguishing factor between benign growth disorders and malignant diseases?
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Which characteristic is true of malignant cells?
Which characteristic is true of malignant cells?
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What aspect of malignant disease risk factors is incorrectly related?
What aspect of malignant disease risk factors is incorrectly related?
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Which mechanism is primarily responsible for malignant disease?
Which mechanism is primarily responsible for malignant disease?
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Which of the following is NOT a typical clinical effect of a tumor?
Which of the following is NOT a typical clinical effect of a tumor?
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Which approach is commonly used for diagnosing malignant diseases?
Which approach is commonly used for diagnosing malignant diseases?
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In relation to treatment, which method is primarily focused on curing malignant disease?
In relation to treatment, which method is primarily focused on curing malignant disease?
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Which of the following statements about the eukaryotic cell cycle is incorrect?
Which of the following statements about the eukaryotic cell cycle is incorrect?
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What type of mutations are associated with breast and ovarian cancer through BRCA1 and BRCA2?
What type of mutations are associated with breast and ovarian cancer through BRCA1 and BRCA2?
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Which of the following is considered an environmental factor that may lead to cancer?
Which of the following is considered an environmental factor that may lead to cancer?
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Which genetic mutation is commonly associated with chronic myelogenous leukaemia?
Which genetic mutation is commonly associated with chronic myelogenous leukaemia?
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What characterizes the abnormal tissue microenvironment associated with cancer?
What characterizes the abnormal tissue microenvironment associated with cancer?
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Which syndrome is linked to p53 mutations and an increased risk of cancers?
Which syndrome is linked to p53 mutations and an increased risk of cancers?
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Which of the following factors is not considered a risk factor for cancer?
Which of the following factors is not considered a risk factor for cancer?
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Which gene is implicated in both breast cancer and ovarian cancer development?
Which gene is implicated in both breast cancer and ovarian cancer development?
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What type of cancer is associated with the mutation on chromosome 11p13?
What type of cancer is associated with the mutation on chromosome 11p13?
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Which virus is associated with cervical cancer?
Which virus is associated with cervical cancer?
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Burkitt's lymphoma is primarily associated with which virus?
Burkitt's lymphoma is primarily associated with which virus?
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Aflatoxin is associated with which type of cancer?
Aflatoxin is associated with which type of cancer?
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Which of the following is NOT a known risk factor for liver cancer?
Which of the following is NOT a known risk factor for liver cancer?
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Which cancer is linked to high consumption of red meat due to 'haem' pigment?
Which cancer is linked to high consumption of red meat due to 'haem' pigment?
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Which cancer is most commonly associated with UV radiation exposure?
Which cancer is most commonly associated with UV radiation exposure?
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Which virus is implicated in the development of liver cancer?
Which virus is implicated in the development of liver cancer?
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What type of cancer is commonly associated with Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)?
What type of cancer is commonly associated with Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)?
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What type of cancer is commonly linked to Aspergillus flavus?
What type of cancer is commonly linked to Aspergillus flavus?
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What is a primary purpose of tumor markers?
What is a primary purpose of tumor markers?
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Which of the following tumor markers is associated with prostate cancer?
Which of the following tumor markers is associated with prostate cancer?
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What characteristic is NOT associated with malignant tumor histology?
What characteristic is NOT associated with malignant tumor histology?
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Which tumor marker is primarily used for diagnosing ovarian cancer?
Which tumor marker is primarily used for diagnosing ovarian cancer?
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What does a result of ISH positive in HER2 testing indicate?
What does a result of ISH positive in HER2 testing indicate?
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What is the threshold level of PSA that is considered normal?
What is the threshold level of PSA that is considered normal?
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Which of the following best describes an 'ideal' tumor marker?
Which of the following best describes an 'ideal' tumor marker?
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What is the main cellular change typically observed in Wilms tumor?
What is the main cellular change typically observed in Wilms tumor?
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Which type of cancer is primarily associated with calcitonin as a tumor marker?
Which type of cancer is primarily associated with calcitonin as a tumor marker?
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What is the significance of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in liquid biopsy?
What is the significance of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in liquid biopsy?
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Which of the following is true about the use of genetic testing in cancer treatment?
Which of the following is true about the use of genetic testing in cancer treatment?
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What is the primary clinical utility of tumor markers in cancer management?
What is the primary clinical utility of tumor markers in cancer management?
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Which tumor marker is most commonly used for assessing pancreatic cancer?
Which tumor marker is most commonly used for assessing pancreatic cancer?
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Study Notes
Learning Outcomes
- Distinguish between benign and malignant growths
- Describe characteristics of malignant cells
- Discuss the causes of malignant disease, linking risk factors to cancer types
- Explain the mechanisms of disease
- Understand the clinical effects of tumors
- Evaluate approaches to diagnosis and treatment of malignant disease
Learning Resources
- Lakhani, S.R., Dilly, S.A., Finlayson, C.J. (2016). Basic Pathology: an introduction to the mechanisms of disease. CRC Press. (e-book recommended)
- Weinberg, R.A. (2014). The Biology of Cancer. Garland Science. (Use other sources if these are not available)
- Additional articles, journals, or websites may be needed for in-depth learning.
Revision Reading
- Chapter 16 (Eukaryotic cell cycle, mitosis, and meiosis) and Chapter 17 (Cell death) from Thrive in Cell Biology (2013) by Wang Q. et al. (Oxford University Press)
- Moodle URL for e-book chapter on cancer cell biology
What is Cancer?
- Cancer affects multicellular organisms
- Cancer is a cellular phenomenon where cells develop unusual properties
- Cancer is a collection of diseases
- The core characteristic of cancer is uncontrolled cell growth
Characteristics of Malignant Cells
- Loss of control over growth signals; insensitive to inhibitory signals
- Resistance to apoptosis
- Unlimited replicative potential (telomeres, telomerase)
- Ability to induce angiogenesis
- Ability to invade surrounding tissues
- Ability to metastasize (spread to other areas)
- Exhibits anchorage-independent growth, losing contact inhibition
Causes of Cancer (Aetiology of Cancer)
- Mutations (zygotic and somatic)
- Environmental factors (viruses, chemicals, radiation)
- Abnormal tissue microenvironment (blood/lymphatics, fibroblasts, immune cells, extracellular matrix, hypoxia etc.)
- Age, lifestyle
Genetic Mutations and Increased Risk of Cancer
- Inherited mutations (e.g., BRCA1/2, Li-Fraumeni syndrome)
- Somatic mutations (e.g., p53, CHK2) are common.
- Specific mutations are linked to particular cancer types (e.g., Wilm's tumor, CML, retinoblastoma, colorectal cancer).
Cancer Cell Characteristics: Loss of Contact Inhibition
- Normal cells stop growing when they come into contact with other cells.
- Cancer cells continue to grow even when in contact with other cells; thus, they ignore cell growth controls
Cancer: Other Risk Factors
- Alcohol consumption
- Tobacco use
- Infections (HPV, HBV, HCV)
- Aflatoxin
- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
- Red meat consumption and N-nitroso compounds
- UV radiation
- Body weight
- Age
Cancer Diagnosis
- Physical examination
- Screening (e.g., mammograms)
- Imaging techniques (CT, MRI, PET, etc.)
- Biopsies (for histopathology, immunohistochemistry, etc.)
- Blood tests
- Genetic Testing
Tumor Markers
- Substances in blood/tissue linked to cancer
- Used in screening, diagnosis, staging, monitoring treatment, and detecting recurrence.
- Common markers: Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), CA15-3, CA19-9, CA-125, Calcitonin, Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), Myo D1, Prostate specific antigen (PSA), Synaptophysin
Histogenetic Classification of Tumors
- Classification based on tissue origin:
- Carcinoma (epithelial tissue)
- Sarcoma (connective tissue)
- Leukemia & lymphoma, myeloma (hematopoietic)
- Neuroectodermal malignancies, Teratoma (mixed tissue types)
Clinical Effects of Tumours
- General effects (e.g., fatigue, anorexia, fever)
- Local effects (e.g., compression, obstruction)
- Endocrine effects (e.g., hormonal imbalances)
- Paraneoplastic syndromes (symptoms not explained by local or metastatic disease, e.g., hypercalcemia)
- Cancer cachexia (wasting syndrome)
Paraneoplastic Syndromes
- Symptoms unrelated to tumor spread
- Examples include hypercalcemia, Cushing's syndrome, clubbing of fingers, etc.
Cancer Treatment
- Surgery
- Chemotherapy
- Radiation therapy
- Immunotherapy
- Targeted therapy
- Hormone therapy
- Stem cell transplantation
Management of Cancers
- Based on cancer aggressivity, predictability of spread, patient morbidity/mortality, treatment cure rate, and patient survival rate
- Measured as 5-year survival without recurrence
Chemotherapy Agents
- List of chemical agents
Targeted Cancer Therapy
- Using drugs/substances that halt cancer growth/spread
- Interfering with specific cancer molecules
- Also called molecularly targeted therapies or drugs
- Tailored to patients' tumor characteristics
Proton Therapy
- Radiation treatment using protons
- Can be used alone or with other therapies
HPV Vaccine
- Vaccination against HPV
Multi-Step Cancer Progression
- Different steps in the development and progression of cancers.
Benign and Malignant Tumors
- Benign tumors are generally localized, non-invasive, and do not metastasize
- Malignant tumors tend to be invasive, and can spread
Cancer Diagnosis Approaches
- Typical clinical indicators (lump, unusual bleeding)
- Screening procedures, tests and investigations
- Imaging (CT, MRI, PET)
- Biopsies
- Laboratory tests
- Tumor markers
- Genetic testing
Malignant Tumor Histology
- Loss of differentiation
- Loss of cellular cohesion
- Nuclear enlargement
- Increased mitotic activity
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Description
Test your understanding of cancer biology by distinguishing between benign and malignant growths, identifying characteristics of malignant cells, and discussing the relationship between risk factors and cancer types. This quiz will also cover mechanisms of disease, clinical effects of tumors, and diagnosis and treatment approaches for malignant diseases.
