Cancer and Neoplasms
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What is the result of the integration of viral DNA with the host DNA?

  • Termination of the cell growth
  • Stimulation of the immune system
  • Activation of tumor suppressor genes
  • Deregulation of the cell cycle, inhibition of apoptosis, and abnormalities of cell signaling pathways (correct)

    • What do oncogenes encode?

  • Proteins that drive the growth of cancer cells (correct)
  • Proteins that stimulate apoptosis
  • Proteins that suppress cell growth
  • Proteins that regulate the immune system

    • What is the primary characteristic of malignant neoplasms?

  • They do not invade other parts of the body.
  • They can spread into nearby tissues. (correct)
  • They are always benign.
  • They do not grow large.

    • What is the goal of elucidating the biochemical and genetic mechanisms of cancer cells?

    <p>To understand the uncontrolled growth of cancer cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal function of proteins encoded by tumor suppressor genes?

    <p>To suppress cell growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is gene amplification characterized by?

    <p>Homogeneously stained regions on chromosomes or double minute chromosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the frequency of spontaneous mutations?

    <p>10^(-7) to 10^(-6) per cell per generation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of the avian leukemia virus integrating adjacent to the MYC gene?

    <p>Activation of the MYC gene</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of enzymes in the action of indirect carcinogens?

    <p>To activate the carcinogen to interact with DNA.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the collective term for proteins/polypeptides such as interleukins and interferons?

    <p>Cytokines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the enhancer insertion?

    <p>Activation of the MYC gene</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the stage where an initiated cell begins to grow and proliferate abnormally?

    <p>Promotion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a modifiable risk factor for cancer?

    <p>Genetic mutations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of exposure to environmental carcinogens?

    <p>Acquired mutations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the chromosomal translocation involving chromosomes 8 and 14?

    <p>Activation of the MYC gene</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between direct and indirect carcinogens?

    <p>Direct carcinogens interact with DNA without prior enzyme activation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the location of the MYC gene after the chromosomal translocation?

    <p>On chromosome 14</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of Rb in the cell cycle?

    <p>To physically associate with E2F factors and block their transactivation domain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to Rb in late G1 phase?

    <p>It releases E2F, allowing the expression of genes necessary for S-phase progression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of developing successful treatments for cancer?

    <p>To destroy cancer cells while causing minimal damage to normal cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of p53?

    <p>To respond to cellular stress signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a recommended strategy for reducing cancer risk?

    <p>Improving diet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of E2F factors in the cell cycle?

    <p>To promote the expression of genes necessary for S-phase progression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of Rb phosphorylation in the cell cycle?

    <p>Rb releases E2F, allowing the expression of genes necessary for S-phase progression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of enzymes that modify specific residues in histones?

    <p>To change the conformation and activity of the modified histones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of CAMs interact with identical molecules on neighboring cells?

    <p>Homophilic CAMs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of an epithelial-to-mesenchymal cell transition in cancer cells?

    <p>Increased movement of potentially metastatic cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of proteinase activity in cancer metastasis?

    <p>To facilitate the invasion of cancer cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of metastasis gene signatures in cancer diagnosis?

    <p>They are used to predict the prognosis of cancer patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common feature of most cancer cells in terms of metabolism?

    <p>Changes in metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of genes are commonly mutated in cancer cells?

    <p>Metabolic protein-encoding genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of heterophilic CAMs in cancer metastasis?

    <p>They interact with different molecules on neighboring cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following biomarkers is associated with thyroid cancer?

    <p>Calcitonin (CT)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary use of tumor biomarkers?

    <p>To monitor the effectiveness of treatments and detect recurrences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following biomarkers is associated with prostate cancer?

    <p>Prostate-specific antigen (PSA)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why must interpretation of elevated tumor biomarker results be made with caution?

    <p>Because they can be elevated in noncancerous diseases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following biomarkers is associated with colon cancer?

    <p>Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of tumor biomarkers?

    <p>They can be elevated in noncancerous diseases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following biomarkers is associated with myeloma?

    <p>Monoclonal immunoglobulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following biomarkers is associated with germ cell tumors?

    <p>Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Cancer

    • Cancer is an abnormal mass of tissue that forms when cells grow and divide more than they should or do not die when they should.
    • Neoplasms can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).
    • Benign neoplasms may grow large but do not spread into, or invade, nearby tissues or other parts of the body.
    • Malignant neoplasms can spread into, or invade, nearby tissues and also spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems.

    Causes of Cancer

    • Acquired mutations can occur due to exposure to environmental carcinogens.
    • Inherited mutations can be hereditary and predispose to certain types of cancer.
    • Spontaneous mutations can occur at a frequency of approximately 10^(-7) to 10^(-6) per cell per generation.
    • Oxidative stress can also contribute to cancer.

    Carcinogenesis

    • Direct carcinogens can interact with DNA without prior enzyme activation.
    • Indirect carcinogens require enzyme activation to become the ultimate carcinogen and then interact with DNA.
    • Initiation is the stage where exposure to a chemical causes irreversible DNA damage.
    • Promotion comprises the stage at which an initiated cell begins to grow and proliferate abnormally.
    • The cumulative effect of these stages is a neoplasm.

    Viral Oncogenesis

    • Integration of viral DNA with the host DNA can result in various events such as deregulation of the cell cycle, inhibition of apoptosis, and abnormalities of cell signaling pathways.

    Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes

    • Oncogenes encode proteins that can drive the growth of cancer cells and are derived from proto-oncogenes.
    • Tumor suppressor genes encode proteins that normally suppress cell growth, but which are inactivated when altered by mutations.

    Chromosomal Abnormalities

    • Gene amplification can result in homogeneous staining regions on chromosomes or as double minute chromosomes.
    • Chromosomal translocations can result in the activation of oncogenes, such as the MYC gene.

    Cytokines

    • Many different interleukins have been isolated, along with interferons and other proteins/polypeptides, which are referred to as cytokines.

    Cancer Prevention

    • Reduce tobacco use
    • Increase physical activity
    • Control weight
    • Improve diet
    • Limit alcohol consumption
    • Use safer sex practices
    • Routine cancer screening tests
    • Avoid excess exposure to the sun

    Cell Cycle Regulation

    • The retinoblastoma protein (Rb) regulates the cell cycle and can be phosphorylated to release E2F, allowing the expression of genes necessary for S-phase progression.
    • p53 is activated by a range of cellular stress signals and can regulate the cell cycle.

    Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs)

    • Cadherins, immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily, integrins, and selectins are examples of CAMs.
    • CAMs can be homophilic or heterophilic and play a crucial role in cell-cell adhesion and migration.

    Metastasis

    • An epithelial-to-mesenchymal cell transition is often found in cancers, allowing increased movement of potentially metastatic cells.
    • Metastasis is relatively inefficient, and metastatic cells must evade the immune system to survive.
    • Changes in cell surface molecules, such as CAMs, and increased proteinase activity facilitate invasion.
    • Metastasis gene signatures can be detected by transcriptome/exome analysis and can be of prognostic value.

    Metabolic Changes in Cancer

    • Changes in metabolism have been observed in most cancer cells.
    • Metabolic protein-encoding genes are commonly mutated in various types of cancer.

    Tumor Biomarkers

    • Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), calcitonin (CT), carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), monoclonal immunoglobulin, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) are examples of tumor biomarkers.
    • These biomarkers can be elevated in the blood of patients with non-cancerous diseases, so interpretation of elevated results must be made with caution.
    • Their main uses are to follow the effectiveness of treatments and to detect recurrences.

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    Learn about the basics of cancer, including the definition, types of neoplasms, and how they can affect the body. Discover the causes and characteristics of cancer.

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