Brain Structure and Function

• Study notes on brain structure and function, neurons and neurotransmission, the nervous system, and genetics and epigenetics are detailed below

Brain Structures & Functions

• Hypothalamus regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, sleep-wake cycles, and the endocrine system, and is located below the thalamus.
• Hippocampus is crucial for forming new long-term memories and spatial navigation.
• Amygdala processes emotions, particularly fear and aggression.
• Basal Ganglia are responsible for motor control, learning, and habit formation, and are a group of subcortical structures.
• Corpus Callosum is a thick band of nerve fibers connecting the left and right brain hemispheres, enabling communication between them.
• Occipital Lobe, located at the rearmost part of the brain, is responsible for visual processing.
• Parietal Lobe processes sensory information, including touch, temperature, pain, and spatial awareness.
• Temporal Lobe is responsible for auditory processing, memory, and language comprehension.
• Frontal Lobe is responsible for higher-level cognitive functions like planning, decision-making, and working memory, and is located at the foremost part of the brain.
• Association Areas integrate information from multiple senses and higher-level cognitive processes, and are regions of the cerebral cortex.
• Cerebral Cortex is the outermost layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions.
• Subcortical Structures are located beneath the cerebral cortex, include the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and basal ganglia.
• Thalamus acts as a sensory relay station, transmitting sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
• Hindbrain is the oldest part of the brain, containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.
• Medulla controls vital functions like heart rate and breathing.
• Reticular Formation is a network of neurons involved in arousal and attention.
• Cerebellum coordinates movement, balance, and motor learning.
• Pons connects the cerebellum to the rest of the brain and plays a role in sleep and arousal.
• Tectum located in the midbrain, controls visual and auditory reflexes.
• Tegmentum located in the midbrain, is involved in movement and arousal.

Neurons & Neurotransmission

• Neurons are nerve cells that transmit information throughout the nervous system.
• Cell Body (Soma) is the main part of the neuron and contains the nucleus.
• Dendrites are branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.
• Axon is a long, slender projection of a neuron that transmits signals to other neurons.
• Myelin Sheath is a fatty substance that insulates the axon, speeding up signal transmission.
• Glial Cells are support cells that provide structural and functional support to neurons.
• Synapse is the junction between two neurons where signals are transmitted.
• Sensory Neurons carry sensory information from the body to the central nervous system.
• Motor Neurons carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.
• Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system.
• Resting Potential is the electrical potential of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting a signal.
• Action Potential is a brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron, triggering neurotransmitter release.
• Refractory Period is a brief period after an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire another action potential.
• Terminal Buttons are the end of an axon, where neurotransmitters are released.
• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons across the synapse.
• Receptors are proteins on the surface of neurons that bind to neurotransmitters, triggering a response.
• Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction, learning, and memory.
• Dopamine is a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, motivation, and motor control.
• Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in learning and memory.
• GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in reducing anxiety and promoting relaxation.
• Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter involved in arousal, attention, and the fight-or-flight response.
• Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in mood, sleep, and appetite.
• Endorphins are neurotransmitters that act as natural pain relievers and produce feelings of pleasure.
• Agonists are drugs that mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptors.
• Antagonists are drugs that block the effects of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptors.

Nervous System

• Nervous System is the body's communication network, consisting of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
• Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is the network of nerves that connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
• Somatic Nervous System controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) controls involuntary functions of internal organs and glands.
• Sympathetic Nervous System activates the fight-or-flight response.
• Parasympathetic Nervous System calms the body down after the fight-or-flight response.
• Spinal Reflexes are automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli, mediated by the spinal cord.
• Reflex Arc is the neural pathway that controls a reflex.

Other Psychological Concepts

• Mirror Neurons fire both when an animal performs an action and when it observes the same action performed by another.
• Cultural Neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field that examines how culture shapes the brain and behavior, and how the brain shapes culture.
• Gene is a unit of heredity that determines a particular trait.
• Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of DNA that contain genes.
• Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the DNA sequence itself.
• Epigenetic Marks are chemical modifications to DNA or histone proteins that alter gene expression.
• DNA Methylation is the addition of a methyl group to DNA, typically suppressing gene expression.
• Histone Modification refers to chemical modifications to histone proteins that affect how tightly DNA is wound around them, influencing gene expression.
• Heritability refers to the proportion of variation in a trait that can be attributed to genetic factors.
• Electroencephalograph (EEG) is a technique for measuring brain activity by detecting electrical signals on the scalp.