Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity

Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity

• Meningiomas are tumors that grow between the meninges, which are the three membranes covering the central nervous system.
• The two defining characteristics of Alzheimer's Disease are neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques.
• In Parkinson's disease, the midbrain nucleus known as the substantia nigra degenerates severely.
• Animal models are experimental tools used to recreate symptoms and underlying mechanisms of human neurological diseases in animals.
• Syphilis is a bacterial infection transmitted through contact with genital sores that can lead to mental illness in its later stages.
• Neural regeneration is known as the regrowth of damaged neurons.
• Phantom limb is the term used to describe the phenomenon where amputees continue to feel sensations in their missing limbs.
• A tumor is a mass of cells that grows independently of the rest of the body.
• Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a progressive disease that attacks the dendrites of axons in the CNS (False).
• Excessive apoptosis can contribute to diseases such as neurodegeneration.
• Mice were the primary leading animal model in the MPTP Model of Parkinson's Disease (False).
• Individuals who inherit one abnormal recessive gene for a neuropsychological disorder typically develop the disorder (False).
• A blind person's ability to recognize objects by touch and locate sounds easily is because their brain uses the part meant for vision to help with touch and hearing.
• An individual's ability to perform well despite brain damage does not mean their brain has fully recovered to its previous state.
• Melinda was diagnosed with a type of tumor considered a Metastatic tumor. It has spread to the brain from another organ, such as the lungs.
• A congenital defect that causes a balloon-like bulge in the wall of an artery is called Aneurysm.
• Huntington's disease is inherited through a dominant gene, Constantine potentially inherits a non-affected gene from his parents a 50-50 posibility.
• A 72-year-old woman, Jane, who frequently forgets recent conversations or events and experiences sudden confusion may be experiencing Alzheimer's Disease.
• A 50-year-old patient who collapses at home and loses consciousness, which family reporting muscle rigidity followed by shaking of the arms and legs, is likely experiencing a Tonic-clonic Seizure.
• After suffering a stroke a patient experiencing neurons swelling, ruptures, and releases cellular contents, leads to further neuronal damage, is cause by Necrosis.
• Researchers studying a neurological disorder with tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia use a particular model by using a chemical to damage the substantia nigra and lower dopamine levels, which they are using the MPTP Model of Parkinson's Disease.
• A lab that is using repeated brain stimulations to induce progressively intense convulsions and showing permanent neuroplastic changes. This is called Kindling Model of Epilepsy.
• A person experiencing damage to their nervous system due to their own immune system producing antibodies that attack the nervous system will be caused by Endogenous Neurotoxin.
• Diagnosing a patient’s neuropsychological disorder caused by a virus may be difficult because the virus may have remained dormant for years before causing symptoms.
• A group of mice shows improved learning, memory, and brain plasticity compared to mice in a standard cage because of Opportunities for physical activity and mental challenges in the enriched environment.

Learning, Memory, and Amnesia

• The striatum stores motor memories.
• The cerebellum helps us learn motor skills and coordination.
• The prefrontal cortex is associated with working memory and planning.
• The main role of the amygdala in memory is storing emotional memories.
• The inferotemporal cortex is associated with visual memory.
• The hippocampus, a seahorse-shaped structure located deep within the brain, primarily in the medial temporal lobe.
• The amygdala brain structure is involved in emotion processing, fear responses, social behavior, and memory formation.
• Studying memory storage by examining the effects of brain lesions (damage to specific areas of the brain) on a person's ability to recall past experiences is called Lesion Method.
• The synapse is the junction between two neurons that allows a signal to pass between them.
• Resting refers to the neuron's inactive state where calcium levels are kept low inside the cell by actively pumping mechanisms, maintaining a steep concentration gradient between the inside and outside of the neuron.
• The prefrontal cortex is crucial for working memory, decision-making, and executive functions, playing a role in the manipulation and retrieval of short-term memories, as well as in organizing and planning actions based on past experiences.
• The Block-Tapping Memory Test is a spatial memory task that confirmed that H.M.'s deficits were global across sensory modalities.
• The Digit Span Test is an H.M. test that could retain sequences of up to six digits temporarily but struggled with longer sequences, reflecting intact short-term memory but impaired long-term encoding.
• Wernicke encephalopathy is a sudden and severe (acute) brain disorder.
• Posttraumatic Amnesia is a coma (pathological state of unconsciousness) following a severe blow to the head usually lasts a few seconds or minutes, but in severe cases, it can last weeks.
• Korsakoff syndrome is a long-term (chronic) memory disorder.
• Concussion is when a bump to your head rattles your brain around in your skull damaging delicate tissue.
• Anterograde Amnesia is difficulty forming new memories after an injury or disease.
• The perirhinal cortex helps in recognizing and distinguishing between objects. It is essential for visual discrimination tasks and involved in familiarity-based recognition.
• Reconsolidation is a theoretical construct that has recently attracted researchers' attention.
• It is believed that the striatum store memories that involve consistent patterns between stimuli and responses actions we take.
• Lesion is a damage or destruction of a specific structure in the brain.
• Neuroplasticity, the brain's ability to form, change, and reorganize neural pathways and synaptic connections as a result of some learning, experience, or an injury.
• Electroconvulsive Shock (ECS) is an intense, brief, diffuse, seizure-inducing current administered to the brain through large electrodes attached to the scalp.
• The apparatus developed by David Mumby for the version of the delayed nonmatching-to-sample test for rats that most closely resembles that for monkeys became known as the Mumby Box.

Hunger, Eating, and Health

• Digestion is the gastrointestinal process of breaking down food and absorbing its constituents into the body.
• The small intestine is where most nutrient absorption into the blood occurs.
• Ara experiences the Cephalic Phase, where she smells food, salivates, and feels hungry even before eating.
• Amino acids comes from proteins like meat, fish, and beans.
• Fat is the best energy storage compared to glycogen. Fat stores twice as much energy as glycogen.
• Anorexia nervosa is a disorder where individuals eat very little, leading to severe weight loss.
• By engaging in voluntary purging, excessive laxative use, or extreme exercise is how bulimics typically attempt to eliminate consumed calories.
• A 19-year-old college student, Sarah, who frequently avoids meals for long periods and then forces to vomit or uses laxatives to prevent weight gain, is most likely experiencing Bulimia nervosa.
• Jake, a student restricted food intake and excessively exercising and sees himself as overweight despite being underweight, has Anorexia nervosa.
• Leptin is the peptide hormone actively released from the fat.
• Gastric Surgery is a surgical treatment for obesity that involves short-circuiting the normal path of food through the digestive tract so its absorption is reduced. This treatment is irreversible.
• Receptors for both peptide hormones are located in the hypothalamus, particularly in the arcuate nucleus, neurons that release is neuropeptide Y and melanocortins.
• A 40-year-old woman, Jessica, consuming high-calorie foods regularly, obesity is most likely the contributing factor to these symptoms.
• The body defends its homeostasis, or the reasonable homeostatic balance of the body's energy reserves before a meal is consumed (Satiety).
• Human subjects rating the palatability of eight different foods after eating a meal of one of them is called Sensory-Specific Satiety.
• Satiety signals from the gut or blood are not necessary to terminate a meal (Malaise).
• The experiment called the Sham Eating is provided strong support for the view that hunger is often caused by the expectation of food, not by an energy deficit.
• Prader-Willi Syndrome is a rare genetic cognition resulting from an accident of chromosomal replication, experiencing insatiable hunger, little or no satiety, and an exceptionally slow.
• Satiety is the feeling of fullness and satisfaction after eating, which signals the body to stop consuming food.
• Peptides chemical signals to the brain from the stomach and other parts of the gastrointestinal tract functioning as hormones and neurotransmitters.
• Miss A suddenly began to display a voracious appetite and quickly gain weight at 3 1/2 years old.
• Set point is the thought hunger and eating controlled by.
• The ideal energy level is defined by Set point mechanism.
• The Detector mechanism detects changes in energy level in the body.
• The Effector mechanism initiates eating or stops eating to return to set point in the body.

Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythm

• The primary function of the circadian rhythm is regulating the body's sleep-wake cycle.
• The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) part of the brain is responsible for regulating the circadian rhythm.
• Exposure to bright light at night can disrupt the circadian rhythm.
• The condition that occurs when an individual fails to get the amount of sleep that they need is Sleep Deprivation.
• Microsleep refers to a very short period of sleep that can be measured in seconds.
• Slow Waves refers to the deepest stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep.
• Economo observed the spreading disease about sleep abnormality during World War I.
• Hypothalamus is the fourth area of the brain involved in sleep.
• Encephalitis lethargica spread during World War I. It was known as "sleepy sickness".
• That being awake disrupts homeostasis (internal physiological stability) of the body, and sleep is required to restore it is a statement that are Recuperation Theories.
• The adaptation theories, in contrast, predict that the daily sleep time of each species is related to how vulnerable it is while it is asleep and how much time is needed each day for primary necessities of life and is a true statement.
• Adaptation Theories suggests we are highly motivated to engage in sleep, but we do not need it to stay healthy.
• Melatonin is a naturally occurring hormone primarily involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle and is often used as a sleep aid.
• Antihypnotic Drugs is the category of drugs that are primarily used to counteract excessive sleepiness or promote wakefulness.
• Hypnotic Drugs is the category of drugs that is primarily used to induce and maintain sleep.
• The Fichten's 2004 study of findings Short sleepers experienced more stress and anxiety compared to long sleepers.
• A polyphasic sleep can eventually balance between slow-wave and REM sleep, making it a viable alternative to monophasic sleep statement that best describes the effects of long-term sleep reduction through napping.
• Sleep disorders involves problems with the quality, timing, and amount of sleep, which result in daytime distress and impairment in functioning.
• Insomnia is a persistent difficulty in falling asleep, staying asleep, or waking up too early, despite having enough time and opportunity to sleep.
• Obstructive Sleep Apnea happens when the airway gets blocked during sleep, causing breathing to stop and start repeatedly.
• REM sleep is the stage where vivid dreaming occurs.
• Delta waves is the is the brain wave dominant in deep sleep.
• The sleep cycle repeats every 90 minutes.
• Stage 4 is the deepest sleep stage and hardest to wake up from.
• Stage 2 is the stage with sleep spindles and K-complexes.

Drug Use, Addiction and Brains Reward Circuit

• The four ways of drug administration are 1. Oral Ingestion 2. Injection 3. Inhalation 4. Absorption through Mucous Membrane.
• The four phases of alcohol withdrawal syndrome: a. hyperactivity, insomnia, and hallucinations b. Delirium Tremens (DTs) c. anxiety, tremor, nausea, and tachycardia d. convulsive activity goes in these phases: *Phase 1: 6 to 8 hours *Phase 2: 10 to 30 hours *Phase 3: 12 to 48 hours *Phase 4: 3 to 5 days (Respectively)
• Contingent tolerance depends on experiencing the drug's effects, while conditioned tolerance depends on the environment where the drug is taken.
• Conditioned Compensatory Responses is the term for how the body prepares for the drug by triggering responses that counteract its effects.
• The phenomena, where a person often takes amphetamines in their living room while listening to a specific playlist, is considered Drug Sensitization. Over time, he starts to notice that the drug is stronger in that environment.
• When a person finds that just thinking about using a drug causes the rate to increase describe Both external and internal stimuli.
• Negative mood swings and insomnia is least likely to be considered as a long-term effect of stimulants.
• The 1914 Act called the Harrison Narcotics Act made it illegal to sell or use opium, morphine, or cocaine in the United States.
• Heroin rush is the wave of intense abdominal, orgasmic pleasure that evolves into a state of serene, drowsy euphoria.
• One of the effects of cocaine sprees and sometimes mistaken for schizophrenia is called Cocaine Psychosis.
• The global death rates for the consumption of alcohol are 2 million.
• The global death rates for the consumption of tobaco are 5 million.
• Degeneration in this site leads to Parkinson's Disease is cause due to the Nigrostriatal pathway.
• The Nucleus Accumbens is mainly considered the central hub for processing reward and pleasure.
• Refers specifically to the anticipated is called the Positive-incentive value.
• Refers to the amount of pleasure that is actually experienced is called Hedonic Value.
• Dopamine release in this pathway has created long-lasting changes in brain reward circuitry, reinforcing the craving is how the mesocorticolimbic pathway explaines the craving of drug even after abstinence.
• Cocaine and other stimulants can lead to tolerance, dependence, and severe health risks is an explanation to The medical student explanation of cocaine and other similants.
• Sigmund Freud had personal experiences with addiction to cocaine and nicotine.

Disorders of Cognition and Emotion

• Phonological analysis is the cognitive process involved that focuses on the analysis of the sounds of language.
• Bavelier and colleagues' (1997) fMRI methodologies was that They recorded brain activity during the reading of sentences rather than simpler, unnatural tasks.
• Famous faces, animals, and tools are the type of images that presented to participants in Damasio and colleagues' (1996) PET study .
• Dyslexia refers to a pathological difficulty in reading that is not caused by general visual, motor, or intellectual deficits.
• Phonetic procedure is the reading procedure involves looking at a word, identifying its letters, sounding them out, and then saying the word.
• Lexical procedure is reading procedure involves looking at a word, recognizing it based on stored information, and then saying it.
• Surface dyslexia is characterized by the inability to pronounce words based on specific memories of the words, while retaining the ability to apply general pronunciation rules.
• Deep dyslexia is characterized by the inability to apply pronunciation rules while retaining the ability to pronounce familiar words based on memory.
• Largest cerebral commissure, the size is estimated at 200 million axons that connects the brain's left and right hemisphere is called Corpus Callosum
• The Left Hemisphere understands a few simple instructions but cannot speak, receives sensory information from the left visual field and left hand, and controls the fine motor responses of the left hand.
• The Right Hemisphere is verbally skilled, receives sensory information from the right visual field and right hand, and controls the fine motor responses.
• Formed through the damage to the pathway connecting Broca's and Wernicke's areas is called .
• Joseph Jules Dejerine discovered the language area in the left temporal lobe just posterior to the primary auditory cortex.
• Carl Wernicke is a German psychiatrist and neuropathologist that is associate with language.
• Left Angular Gyrus is the area of the left temporal and parietal cortex just posterior to Wernicke's area and is responsible for comprehending language related visual input via visual cortex and indirect right.
• Evidence from Studies of the Effects of Cortical Damage, sites which stimulation blocked disrupt speech that conscious neuro surgical patients were scattered through out the large expanse of frontal, temporal and parietal cortex.
• Phonetic procedure is used for words she hasn't encountered before, by using the known process of looking at letter, them identifying them and them sounding it out loud by Lily.
• Broca's Aphasia is the kind of disorder that develops once the Broca's Area is damaged.
• Both statements are incorrect, the statement states that: Ipsilateral uses the opposite side of the body while the Contralateral uses the same side of the body.
• Ipsilateral movement is the term to throw a punch using the same arm as the driving leg, by Dwight.
• The Arcuate Fasciculus connects the Broca's Area and the Wernicke's Area
• When James car accedently gave him a difficulty reading despite of his great memory is call: Acquired dyslexia.
• Sophia condition is called Developmental dyslexia were she is struggling to learn to read.
• . When cognition of neuroscientists when understanding messages being read aspect we are: Semantic Analysis.
• According to is called Connectionist model ,that specific areas in the left cerebral cortex are dedicated solely to language functions like speech, comprehension, and reading , is a proposed
• Is there is is a difficult due to a specific reading disorder.

Group 7: Emotions

• Opposite messages are often signaled by opposite movements and postures, an idea called the principle of diathesis (False)
• Cannon-bard theory states that our body responds to a stimulus first, and then we interpret those physical changes as emotions (False).
• Klüver-Bucy Syndrome (KBS) is often due to brain injury, infections, or degenerative diseases (True).
• Facial expressions are largely universal across cultures, with people correctly recognizing emotions in others, even from unfamiliar cultures (True).
• Ekman and Friesen identified five primary facial expressions (False).

Group 8: Biopsychology of Psychiatric Disorders

• This response was used by many animals to avoid attacks is called Freezing & Flight.
• Fear Conditioning is the the establishment of fear in response to a previously neutral stimulus.
• The Prefrontal Cortex is thought to act on the lateral nucleus of the amygdala to suppress conditioned fear.
• The Hippocampus plays a key role in memory for spatial location and can be involved in contextual fear conditioning
• The term Stress is to define the cluster and the physiological changes that effects the body harm.

Group 8: Biopsychology of Psychiatric Disorders

• The Tourette disorder is a disorder of tics
• Typically begins during childhood/early adolescence.