Brain Anatomy Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of the cerebellum?

  • Coordinating and fine-tuning movements (correct)
  • Controlling heart rate and breathing
  • Processing visual information
  • Regulating emotional responses

    • Which part of the brain is divided into two hemispheres each with five lobes?

  • Cerebrum (correct)
  • Cerebellum
  • Brainstem
  • Diencephalon

    • Which structure is NOT part of the brainstem?

  • Midbrain
  • Medulla oblongata
  • Thalamus (correct)
  • Pons

    • What does the diencephalon primarily enclose?

    <p>The 3rd ventricle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a function of the cerebellum?

    <p>Adjusting movements initiated by the cerebrum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of information does the cerebellum continuously receive?

    <p>Motor plans and proprioceptive information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is responsible for ensuring muscle activity follows a correct pattern?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nucleus in the hypothalamus regulates food intake by monitoring nutrient levels?

    <p>Ventromedial nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the anterior nucleus in the hypothalamus do to monitor to regulate thirst?

    <p>Concentration of dissolved substances in blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus?

    <p>Directing pineal gland secretion of melatonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord?

    <p>Brainstem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a component of the brainstem?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is associated with the limbic system in the brain?

    <p>Controlling emotional response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nuclei in the hypothalamus are involved in regulating body temperature?

    <p>Preoptic area and other hypothalamic nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of tracts does the brainstem contain?

    <p>Ascending and descending tracts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the hypothalamus regulates circadian rhythms by secreting melatonin?

    <p>Pineal gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the auditory association area?

    <p>Interprets sounds and stores memories of sound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the primary auditory cortex located?

    <p>Within the temporal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do cranial nerves originate from?

    <p>Peripheral nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cranial nerve is primarily involved in the function of balance and hearing?

    <p>Vestibulocochlear nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the primary gustatory cortex?

    <p>Process taste information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many pairs of cranial nerves are there?

    <p>12 pairs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is NOT typically associated with cranial nerves?

    <p>Production of hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is located in the insula?

    <p>Primary gustatory cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cranial nerve is associated with the motor aspect of the tongue?

    <p>Hypoglossal nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nerve is responsible for innervating the anterior thigh muscles?

    <p>Femoral nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of pain is typically associated with a sciatic nerve injury?

    <p>Extreme pain down the posterior thigh</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the tibial nerve?

    <p>Innervates the posterior compartment of the leg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sensory receptors detect changes in blood pressure?

    <p>Baroreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nerve would likely be affected by poorly placed gluteal injections?

    <p>Superior gluteal nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of injury occurs when the superior trunk of the brachial plexus is damaged?

    <p>Excessive separation of the neck</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can lead to an injury of the inferior trunk of the brachial plexus?

    <p>Excessive abduction of the arm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nerve branches are affected by injuries to the brachial plexus?

    <p>Any brachial plexus branch affected</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Damage to the superior trunk of the brachial plexus primarily affects which area?

    <p>Shoulder movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nerve roots are associated with the superior trunk of the brachial plexus?

    <p>C5-C6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding nerve injuries in the brachial plexus?

    <p>Injuries can lead to sensory loss as well.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What potentially results from an injury to the inferior trunk of the brachial plexus?

    <p>Difficulty in hand coordination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What degree of nerve involvement is common in brachial plexus injuries?

    <p>Partial sensory loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the primary olfactory area located within the temporal lobe?

    <p>Provides conscious awareness of smells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cranial nerve is primarily responsible for the function of shrugging shoulders?

    <p>Accessory nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the auditory association area play within the brain's structure?

    <p>Stores memories of sound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the ventromedial nucleus in the hypothalamus play in the regulation of food intake?

    <p>It influences hunger by monitoring nutrient levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nucleus in the hypothalamus is responsible for regulating thirst by monitoring the concentration of dissolved substances in the blood?

    <p>Anterior nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What function does the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus serve in the body?

    <p>It regulates circadian rhythms by directing melatonin secretion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is involved in connecting various structures such as the cerebrum and the spinal cord?

    <p>Brainstem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is involved in controlling emotional behavior?

    <p>Limbic system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primary functions are associated with the brainstem's autonomic nuclei?

    <p>Controlling autonomic functions and reflex centers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which components make up the brainstem?

    <p>Midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the medulla oblongata in the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>Controls breathing rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which center in the medulla oblongata primarily regulates heart output?

    <p>Cardiac Center</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What types of tracts extend through the pons?

    <p>Sensory and motor tracts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What function does the vasomotor center in the medulla oblongata primarily influence?

    <p>Controlling blood vessel diameter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is primarily responsible for coughing and sneezing in the medulla oblongata?

    <p>Ventral respiratory group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe contains the primary motor cortex responsible for voluntary movements?

    <p>Frontal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The medulla respiratory center communicates directly with which center for effective breathing control?

    <p>Pontine respiratory center</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of activity is primarily regulated by the respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata?

    <p>Autonomic functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cortex area is involved in complex planning and execution of movements?

    <p>Premotor cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the sensory homunculus represent?

    <p>The distorted proportions of body areas representing sensory input</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the somatosensory association area located?

    <p>In the parietal lobe immediately posterior to the postcentral gyrus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the premotor cortex?

    <p>Coordinating learned skilled motor activities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the primary visual cortex?

    <p>To integrate color and shape for object recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the primary somatosensory cortex located?

    <p>Postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area is responsible for regulating eye movements needed for reading binocular vision?

    <p>Frontal eye field</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following areas surrounds the primary visual cortex?

    <p>Visual association area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of information does the somatosensory association area integrate?

    <p>Touch information to identify objects by feel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What types of sensory information does the primary somatosensory cortex receive?

    <p>Touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe of the brain houses the primary somatosensory cortex?

    <p>Parietal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What types of functions are primarily associated with the primary auditory cortex?

    <p>Receiving and processing sound information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The visual association area primarily helps with which of the following?

    <p>Identifying visual stimuli such as faces and shapes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of sensations does the premotor cortex coordinate the motor activities for?

    <p>Learned skilled motor activities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area is located superior to the motor speech area in the frontal lobe?

    <p>Frontal eye field</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of sensations do the large areas of the sensory homunculus represent?

    <p>Tactile sensations from the lips, fingers, and genital region</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain lobe encompasses the primary auditory cortex?

    <p>Temporal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the primary somatosensory cortex allow for in terms of body position?

    <p>Conscious interpretation of body position</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is NOT associated with the primary somatosensory cortex?

    <p>Controlling vocalization movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is likely NOT associated with the primary visual cortex?

    <p>Recognizing auditory cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is primarily managed by the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus?

    <p>Monitoring nutrient levels and regulating hunger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is produced by the hypothalamus that influences the activities of the anterior pituitary gland?

    <p>Antidiuretic hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the hypothalamus is correct?

    <p>It influences the body's temperature regulation and emotional behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The suprachiasmatic nucleus plays a critical role in which aspect of body regulation?

    <p>Directing the pineal gland to secrete melatonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hypothalamic nucleus is responsible for monitoring the concentration of dissolved substances in the blood?

    <p>Anterior nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the thalamus in the brain?

    <p>Relay station for sensory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which types of signals does the thalamus receive?

    <p>All conscious senses except olfaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the thalamus contribute to attention management?

    <p>It reduces sensory overload by filtering distractions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical structure does the thalamus consist of?

    <p>An oval mass of gray matter on the lateral sides of the third ventricle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic of the thalamic nuclei?

    <p>They consist of about a dozen distinct nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure serves as a connection between the cerebral hemispheres and the brainstem?

    <p>Diencephalon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which components make up the main subdivisions of the diencephalon?

    <p>Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cavity is enclosed within the diencephalon?

    <p>3rd Ventricle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures is NOT part of the diencephalon?

    <p>Cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primary role does the thalamus play in relation to sensory and motor information?

    <p>Processes and relays information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres?

    <p>Corpus callosum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which manner does the cerebellum impact muscle activities?

    <p>It adjusts movements to guarantee smoothness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic does the left hemisphere of the cerebrum exhibit in relation to body signals?

    <p>It sends motor signals exclusively to the right side of the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of movement does the cerebellum utilize from the body?

    <p>Proprioceptive information from muscles and joints</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the parietal lobe is primarily responsible for processing sensory information from the body?

    <p>Primary somatosensory cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which functional area of the frontal lobe is involved in language production?

    <p>Motor speech area (Broca's area)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Wernicke's area located in the parietal lobe?

    <p>Understanding spoken and written language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe contains the primary visual cortex responsible for processing visual stimuli?

    <p>Occipital lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary auditory cortex is found in which part of the brain?

    <p>Temporal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the pia mater in the cranial meninges?

    <p>To separate and support the soft tissue of the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about cerebrospinal fluid is correct?

    <p>It surrounds the central nervous system and provides protection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the cranial meninges is considered the toughest?

    <p>Dura mater</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What advantage does cerebrospinal fluid provide in terms of buoyancy?

    <p>It allows the brain to float, preventing compression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of the cranial meninges?

    <p>To provide a nutrient-rich environment for the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of spinal reflexes?

    <p>To produce fast reactions to specific stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which regional nerves are responsible for controlling the diaphragm?

    <p>Cervical nerves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many pairs of spinal nerves are associated with the lumbar region?

    <p>5 pairs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following areas is predominantly controlled by sacral spinal nerves?

    <p>Pelvis and genitals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the distribution of cervical nerves?

    <p>Controls head, neck, shoulders, and diaphragm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the primary neuron in the spino-cerebellar pathway?

    <p>It synapses with the secondary neuron in the spinal cord.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuron is responsible for directly stimulating skeletal muscle contraction in the corticospinal tracts?

    <p>Lower motor neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does the secondary neuron of the spino-cerebellar pathway extend from?

    <p>Posterior horn of the spinal cord</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The corticospinal tract contains how many motor neurons in its pathway?

    <p>Two</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of the central nervous system is the lower motor neuron located in?

    <p>Spinal cord anterior horn</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor is primarily responsible for detecting mechanical stimuli?

    <p>Mechanoreceptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of receptor responds to changes in temperature?

    <p>Thermoreceptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which receptor is sensitive to light and aids in vision?

    <p>Photoreceptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which receptor is primarily involved in processing pain and temperature?

    <p>Nociceptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of receptor responds to changes in the chemical composition of blood?

    <p>Chemoreceptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of muscle spindle proprioceptors in the stretch reflex?

    <p>To detect muscle length changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What outcomes arise from the Golgi tendon reflex?

    <p>Inhibition of antagonist muscle contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the withdrawal reflex?

    <p>Painful stimulus activating nociceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of the stretch reflex, how does polysynaptic reciprocal inhibition function?

    <p>By inhibiting the contraction of the antagonist muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is involved in the activation of the flexor muscle during the withdrawal reflex?

    <p>Excitatory interneuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step in a reflex arc?

    <p>Stimulus activates receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which step of the reflex arc is the nerve signal transmitted to the spinal cord?

    <p>Nerve Signal is propagated through sensory neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which step involves the processing of the nerve signal in the reflex arc?

    <p>Nerve Signal is processed in integration center</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens after the nerve signal is processed in the integration center?

    <p>Nerve Signal is propagated by motor neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the final step in the reflex arc?

    <p>Effector responds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is produced by the hypothalamus to influence the activities of the pituitary gland?

    <p>Antidiuretic hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the ventromedial nucleus play in the hypothalamus?

    <p>Monitors nutrient levels to regulate hunger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the hypothalamus primarily regulate sleep-wake rhythms?

    <p>Through the suprachiasmatic nucleus directing melatonin secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function regulated by the hypothalamus?

    <p>Maintenance of muscle tone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nucleus of the hypothalamus is primarily involved in monitoring the concentration of dissolved substances in the blood to regulate thirst?

    <p>Anterior nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does the hypothalamus have on the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>Influences heart rate and blood pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is primarily produced by the hypothalamus to control water balance?

    <p>Antidiuretic hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nucleus in the hypothalamus is responsible for regulating hunger?

    <p>Ventromedial nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the hypothalamus contribute to sleep-wake cycles?

    <p>By regulating melatonin secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which way does the hypothalamus interact with the endocrine system?

    <p>Secretes hormones that control the pituitary gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of the brain controls emotional behaviour?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    what part of the brain influence heart rate, blood pressure, digestive activities, respiration (autonomic NS)

    <p>hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    what part of the brain controls hormones?

    <p>hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    what part of the brain controls regulation of body temperature?

    <p>hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    what part of the brain regulate hunger and thirst?

    <p>hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of the brain contains respiratory centers that regulate skeletal muscles of breathing?

    <p>pons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the cardiac center in the medulla oblongata play?

    <p>Regulates heart output</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which center in the medulla oblongata regulates blood pressure?

    <p>Vasomotor center</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What function does the medulla respiratory center NOT control?

    <p>Heart rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following responses is NOT associated with the medulla oblongata's respiratory center?

    <p>Regulating heart output</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which action is primarily regulated by the medulla oblongata's vasomotor center?

    <p>Regulating blood vessel diameter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    what section of the brain contains the primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, frontal eye field, and motor speech area?

    <p>frontal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    what section of the brain contains the primary somatosensory cortex and somatosensory association area?

    <p>parietal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    what section of the brain contains the primary visual cortex, and visual association area?

    <p>occipital</p> Signup and view all the answers

    what section of the brain contains the primary auditory cortex, auditory association area, and primary olfactory cortex?

    <p>temporal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    what part of the brain helps maintain equilibrium and posture?

    <p>cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    which white matter tract connect different regions of the cerebral cortex within the same hemisphere?

    <p>association</p> Signup and view all the answers

    which white matter tract connect left and right cerebral hemispheres?

    <p>commissural</p> Signup and view all the answers

    which white matter tract links the inferior brain regions and the spinal cord?

    <p>projection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the monosynaptic reflex?

    <p>A reflex action involving one synapse and one neuron.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the polysynaptic reflex?

    <p>A reflex involving multiple synapses and interneurons, allowing for a more complex response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the steps of the reflex arc? (Select all that apply)

    Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    The Human Brain

    • Brain has 4 major regions: cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebellum
    • Cerebrum has 2 hemispheres, each with 5 lobes
    • Diencephalon is organized into epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus
    • Brainstem consists of midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
    • Cerebellum coordinates and fine-tunes movements ensuring smooth, correct patterns, and helps maintain posture and equilibrium

    Diencephalon

    • Outlined in purple, encloses the third ventricle
    • Connects cerebral hemispheres to the brainstem
    • Main subdivisions (bolded in image): thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus

    Cerebellum

    • Coordinates and fine-tunes movements, ensuring muscle activity follows correct patterns
    • Stores memories of learned movements
    • Regulates voluntary and involuntary motor pathways
    • Helps maintain equilibrium and posture
    • Receives proprioceptive information from muscles and joints
    • Contributes to sensory feedback for smooth movement and error correction

    Cerebral Hemispheres

    • Composed of left and right hemispheres, separated by longitudinal fissure
    • White matter tracts connect hemispheres
    • Corpus callosum is the largest tract connecting hemispheres
    • Regions may exhibit multiple functions, some not easily assigned to a specific region
    • Left hemisphere receives sensory signals from the right side of the body and sends motor signals to the right side of the body

    Thalamus

    • Relay station of the brain
    • Oval masses of gray matter on the lateral sides of the third ventricle
    • Composed of about a dozen thalamic nuclei
    • Receives signals from all conscious senses except olfaction; relays some signals to appropriate parts of the cortex, filtering out distracting signals
    • Involved in relaying somatosensory information for conscious awareness of touch, pressure, pain, and temperature

    Hypothalamus

    • Anteroinferior region of the diencephalon
    • Infundibulum: stalks of pituitary extending from the hypothalamus
    • Controls autonomic nervous system; influences heart rate, blood pressure, digestive activities, and respiration
    • Controls endocrine systems; secretes hormones that control activities in the anterior pituitary gland and produces antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
    • Regulates body temperature
    • Controls food and water intake; monitors nutrient levels and blood concentrations to regulate hunger and thirst
    • Regulates sleep-wake rhythms, directs pineal gland to secrete melatonin regulating circadian rhythms
    • Involved in emotional behavior; part of the limbic system, controlling emotional responses

    Brainstem

    • Connects cerebrum, diencephalon, and cerebellum to the spinal cord
    • Contains ascending and descending tracts, cranial nerve nuclei, and reflex centers
    • Composed of midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

    Pons

    • Sensory and motor tracts located within
    • Connects brain and spinal cord
    • Contains respiratory centers that regulate skeletal muscles and heart rate

    Medulla Oblongata

    • Cardiac center regulates heart output;
    • Vasomotor center regulates blood vessel diameter, influencing blood pressure
    • Contains respiratory centers, essential for breathing
    • Contributes to various involuntary functions like coughing, sneezing; involved in vomiting, salivating, swallowing.

    Functional areas of cortex

    • Frontal lobe: Primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, frontal eye field, prefrontal cortex, Broca area (motor speech area)
    • Parietal lobe: Primary somatosensory cortex, somatosensory association area
    • Occipital lobe: Primary visual cortex, visual association area
    • Temporal lobe: Primary auditory cortex, auditory association area, primary olfactory area

    Wernicke's area

    • Responsible for understanding spoken and written language

    Cranial Meninges

    • 3 connective tissue layers that separate and support brain tissue
    • Enclose and protect blood vessels
    • Help contain and circulate cerebrospinal fluid
    • Layers, from deep to superficial:
      • Pia mater (soft and delicate)
      • Arachnoid mater (like spider legs)
      • Dura mater (tough)

    Cerebrospinal Fluid

    • Clear, colorless liquid surrounding the central nervous system (CNS)
    • Circulates in ventricles and subarachnoid space
    • Provides buoyancy, reducing brain's apparent weight
    • Functions: protection (liquid cushion) and environmental stability (transports nutrients, wastes), protecting brain from fluctuations

    Cerebral White Matter Tracts

    • Association tracts: connect different regions within the same hemisphere
    • Commissural tracts: connect cerebral hemispheres
    • Projection tracts: connect cerebral cortex to lower brain regions and spinal cord
      • Corticospinal tracts transmit motor signals from cerebrum to spinal cord

    Primary Motor Cortex

    • Motor areas located within precentral gyrus in frontal lobe
    • Controls skeletal muscle activity on the opposite side of the body

    Primary Somatosensory Cortex

    • Located in postcentral gyrus of parietal lobes
    • Receives and processes somatosensory information
    • Involved in conscious awareness of touch, pressure, pain, and temperature

    Spinal Nerves

    • 12 pairs of cranial nerves; part of peripheral nervous system originating from the brain; functional organization; sensory and motor functions;
      • Olfactory, Optic, Oculomotor, Trochlear, Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial, Vestibulocochlear, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Accessory, Hypoglossal

    Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

    • Functions: structural and functional link between brain and body; relay sensory input from body to brain, motor commands from brain to body; spinal reflexes

    Upper Limb

    • Median nerve: compressed in carpal tunnel syndrome can cause paralysis to thenar muscles; loss of sensation in part of hand
    • Ulnar nerve: injury from fractures or dislocation, paralysis of intrinsic hand muscles; sensory loss on medial hand

    Lower Limb

    • Femoral nerve: injury results in pain, numbness.
    • Obturator nerve: injury results in pain.
    • Sciatic nerve: injury results in pain.

    Spinal Roots and Spinal Nerves

    • Sensory receptors: Somatic (tactile, proprioceptors), Visceral (baroreceptors, chemoreceptors)
    • Effectors: Somatic (skeletal muscles), Visceral (autonomic: cardiac muscle, smooth muscles, and glands)
    • spinal nerve anatomy

    Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerve Receptors

    • Mechanoreceptors: respond to mechanical stimuli (e.g., proprioceptors)
    • Thermoreceptors: respond to temperature changes
    • Nociceptors: process pain and temperature
    • Photoreceptors: sensitive to light
    • Chemoreceptors: detect changes in blood's chemical composition

    Steps of Reflex Arc

    • Stimulus activates receptor
    • Nerve signal propagated through sensory neuron to spinal cord
    • Nerve signal processed in integration center (interneurons)
    • Nerve signal propagated by motor neuron to effector
    • Effector responds

    Classifying Spinal Reflexes

    • Spinal or cranial (is spinal cord or brain the reflex integration center?)
    • Somatic or visceral (is the effector skeletal muscle or cardiac/smooth muscle/gland?
    • Monosynaptic or polysynaptic (do sensory neurons synapse directly with motor neurons or are there interneurons?)
    • Ipsilateral or contralateral (are receptors and effectors on the same or opposite side of the body?)
    • Innate or acquired (is the reflex born with or developed later?)

    Stretch Reflex

    • Reflexive contraction of a muscle after it is stretched
    • Stretch detected by muscle spindle proprioceptors
    • Sensory axons transmit impulses to spinal cord
    • Sensory axon excites alpha motor neurons in the same muscle leading to contraction
    • Sensory axon excites interneurons that inhibit motor neurons of the antagonist muscle (reciprocal inhibition)

    Spino-cerebellar Pathways

    • Ascending pathways
    • Use two neuron chains to communicate about specific stimuli from proprioceptors
    • Provide subconscious postural output information to the brain

    Corticospinal Tracts

    • Descending pathways
    • Control skeletal muscles
    • Two motor neurons are part of these chains
    • Upper motor neurons are housed within the cerebral cortex
    • Lower motor neurons are located in the cranial nerve nuclei in the spinal cord anterior hom

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