Bone Resorption and Cartilage Growth
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary hormone released when calcium levels in the blood are low?

  • Cortisol
  • Insulin
  • Calcitonin
  • Parathyroid hormone (correct)

    • What is the role of calcium in the body?

  • Assists in neurotransmitter exocytosis (correct)
  • Facilitates oxygen transport in blood
  • Regulates blood pH levels
  • Enhances fat metabolism

    • What forms after vitamin D is converted in the kidneys?

  • Calcium carbonate
  • Calcitriol (correct)
  • Dihydroxycholecalciferol
  • Cholecalciferol

    • Which organ detects low calcium levels in the bloodstream?

    <p>Parathyroid glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which physiological functions require calcium?

    <p>Blood clotting and heart function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of osteoclasts in bone tissue?

    <p>Destroying the bone matrix</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during interstitial growth of cartilage?

    <p>Chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix within existing cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of chondroblasts in the maturation of cartilage?

    <p>They differentiate into chondrocytes as they produce matrix.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to interstitial growth as cartilage matures?

    <p>It declines rapidly.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true regarding transcytosis?

    <p>It is a type of transcellular transport for macromolecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the chemical composition of the matrix in hyaline cartilage?

    <p>Aweigh of collagen fibers and proteoglycans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the ruffled border of an osteoclast primarily involved in?

    <p>Increasing surface area for bone resorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a chondrocyte?

    <p>It is a committed cell that no longer produces new matrix.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of growth is primarily associated with the development of mature cartilage?

    <p>Appositional growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs to chondroblasts as they secrete new matrix?

    <p>They push apart and become chondrocytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In mature cartilage, what primarily drives further growth?

    <p>Appositional growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs as a result of protease activity during bone resorption?

    <p>Destruction of organic matrix components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the space where chondrocytes reside?

    <p>Lacuna.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding the matrix formation in cartilage?

    <p>Each mature chondrocyte contributes to the surrounding matrix.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do osteoclasts contribute to maintaining blood calcium levels?

    <p>By resorbing bone when calcium levels are low</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of growth occurs when mitotic activity is present in stem cells within the perichondrium?

    <p>Appositional Growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do the fontanels typically close in a child?

    <p>12 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure remains unossified in bone development?

    <p>Articular cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the epiphyseal plate during growth?

    <p>To allow bone lengthening</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component develops into the endosteum and bone marrow during ossification?

    <p>Fontanels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the epiphyseal plate during late teens to adulthood?

    <p>It becomes the epiphyseal line</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a component of endochondral ossification?

    <p>Cancellous cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily fills the medullary cavity during bone growth?

    <p>Bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process replaces cartilage with bone tissue during skeletal development?

    <p>Endochondral ossification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of calcitonin in the body?

    <p>Inhibits osteoclast activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors contributes to reduced bone mass in aging individuals?

    <p>Reduced testosterone levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of fracture is characterized by a thin break caused by repetitive stress?

    <p>Stress fracture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the rate of fracture healing as individuals age?

    <p>It becomes slower</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about osteoporosis is true?

    <p>It can lead to reduced bone mass sufficient to compromise normal function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the initial type of callus formed during the bone repair process?

    <p>Fibro-cartilaginous callus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a compound fracture?

    <p>The broken bone pierces the skin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does calcitonin affect kidney function?

    <p>Promotes calcium loss in urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common consequence of aging on bone density?

    <p>Decreased bone mass</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does the absence of calcitonin have on calcium regulation?

    <p>It has no significant impact.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of ossification begins with a hyaline cartilage model?

    <p>Endochondral ossification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following bones is produced through intramembranous ossification?

    <p>Maxilla</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do the fontanels typically close in infants?

    <p>2 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is required for the active process of bone formation and growth?

    <p>Oxygen and nutrients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures forms first during intramembranous ossification?

    <p>Ossification centers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to the formation and development of bone connective tissue?

    <p>Ossification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what stage of development do ossification centers begin to form?

    <p>Around 8th to 12th weeks of embryonic development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What limits the internal growth of cartilage?

    <p>Lack of blood vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process involves direct transformation of mesenchymal cells into bone?

    <p>Intramembranous ossification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of ossification primarily occurs in long bones?

    <p>Endochondral ossification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cells are responsible for secreting new cartilage matrix?

    <p>Chondrocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily continues after cartilage growth stops?

    <p>Cartilage injury repair</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an essential feature of mature chondrocytes?

    <p>They produce less matrix than during development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What differentiates woven bone from lamellar bone?

    <p>Woven bone has irregular collagen fiber arrangement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Intramembranous ossification involves which of the following processes?

    <p>Mesenchyme condensing to form periosteum.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does collagen play in the structure of bone?

    <p>Collagen is involved in forming the matrix vesicles for mineralization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which part of bone development is hydroxyapatite incorporated for increased strength?

    <p>Calcified matrix exocytosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be inferred about the structure of lamellar bone compared to woven bone?

    <p>Lamellar bone features collagen fibers oriented in layers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of mesenchymal cells in bone ossification?

    <p>They differentiate into osteoblasts for bone matrix production.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bone structure contains trabecular formations?

    <p>Spongy bone.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic of mesenchyme during the bone formation process?

    <p>It condenses to facilitate periosteum formation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary action of calcitonin in terms of bone activity?

    <p>Inhibits osteoclast activity and promotes bone deposition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about aging and bone function is true?

    <p>Osteoblast activity declines while osteoclast activity remains unchanged</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common outcome of a pathologic fracture?

    <p>It is caused by underlying medical conditions weakening the bone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of fracture heals the slowest?

    <p>Compound fracture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormonal changes contribute to osteopenia as people age?

    <p>Decrease in estrogen, growth hormone, and testosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically characterizes a simple fracture?

    <p>It is a clean break with no associated damage to the soft tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which stage of fracture healing does the formation of a hematoma occur?

    <p>Initial fracture response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does calcitonin primarily affect kidney function?

    <p>Promotes the excretion of calcium in urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors does NOT contribute to the increased incidence of fractures with age?

    <p>Higher levels of bone mineral density</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of osteoblasts during the bone repair process?

    <p>Contribute to new bone formation and mineralization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main feature of achondroplastic dwarfism?

    <p>Failure of chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate to grow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens at the epiphyseal plate during puberty?

    <p>Increased rate of ossification and cartilage production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does appositional growth in bone primarily involve?

    <p>Circumferential expansion of compact bone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is essential for normal bone remodeling?

    <p>Coordinated activity of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of inadequate endochondral ossification?

    <p>Short stature with disproportionately large head</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the activities of osteocytes during mechanical stress?

    <p>They detect stress and help increase bone strength</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the remnant of the epiphyseal plate in an adult bone called?

    <p>Epiphyseal line</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the rate of cartilage production as a person matures?

    <p>It slows down</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bone remodeling process can lead to an increase in bone mass?

    <p>Weight-bearing activities resulting in mechanical stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does aging primarily affect bone density?

    <p>Bone density typically decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of ligaments in relation to synovial joints?

    <p>To stabilize and reinforce joints</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do bursa contribute to joint function?

    <p>They reduce friction between moving structures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of arthritis is characterized by an autoimmune response affecting the synovial membrane?

    <p>Rheumatoid arthritis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically occurs in individuals with osteoarthritis?

    <p>Erosion of the articular cartilage over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What leads to joint swelling and stiffness in gouty arthritis?

    <p>Increased levels of uric acid in the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary basis for the classification of joints?

    <p>The connective tissue involved</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which joint classification allows for the greatest range of motion?

    <p>Diarthrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes fibrous joints?

    <p>Connected by dense regular connective tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of joint is characterized by a lack of a joint cavity and allows slight movement?

    <p>Cartilaginous joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the relationship between mobility and stability in joints?

    <p>Decreased mobility leads to increased stability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of synovial joints?

    <p>Presence of a synovial membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of joint is classified as synostoses after becoming ossified?

    <p>Fibrous joints</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true regarding cartilaginous joints?

    <p>They lack a joint cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cartilage is present between articulating bones in cartilaginous joints?

    <p>Both B and C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of synovial joints?

    <p>Contains articular cartilage with a perichondrium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of synovial fluid in synovial joints?

    <p>It lubricates articular cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which joint category does the costochondral joint belong to?

    <p>Cartilaginous/Synchondrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which feature is primarily responsible for reducing friction in synovial joints?

    <p>Articular cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to some syncchondroses over time?

    <p>They ossify</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nerve type detects damaging stimuli in synovial joints?

    <p>Nociceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What function does the articular capsule serve in synovial joints?

    <p>It strengthens the joint to prevent separation of bones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of joint is the sternoclavicular joint classified as?

    <p>Saddle joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ligaments provide stability to the acromioclavicular joint?

    <p>Acromioclavicular and coracoclavicular ligaments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What commonly results from a hard blow to the acromioclavicular joint?

    <p>Shoulder separation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What movement is NOT possible at the sternoclavicular joint?

    <p>Rotation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which feature is unique to the structure of the sternoclavicular joint?

    <p>Saddle joint configuration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)?

    <p>Preventing hyperextension of the knee</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)?

    <p>It prevents hyperflexion of the knee.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the medial and lateral menisci in the knee joint?

    <p>They provide cushioning between the articular surfaces.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The 'unhappy triad' refers to an injury involving which of the following?

    <p>Tibial collateral ligament, medial meniscus, and ACL</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In ankle sprains, what typically causes injury to the lateral ligaments?

    <p>Overinversion of the foot</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of a Pott fracture?

    <p>Fracture of the medial malleolus and fibula</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which joint classification best describes the talocrural (ankle) joint?

    <p>Modified hinge joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What function do the deltoid and lateral ligaments at the ankle serve?

    <p>They prevent the talus from sliding side to side.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What common injury is characterized by localized swelling and tenderness at the lateral malleolus?

    <p>Sprain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common mechanism that causes meniscal injury?

    <p>Direct blow to the knee</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What joint is known for having the greatest range of motion in the body?

    <p>Glenohumeral joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor primarily contributes to the strength of the glenohumeral joint?

    <p>Rotator cuff muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What often causes dislocation of the glenohumeral joint?

    <p>A direct blow to the shoulder when the humerus is fully abducted</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the characteristics of the glenohumeral joint's anatomical design?

    <p>It has a loose articular capsule that is attached to the humerus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ligaments play a role in the stability of the glenohumeral joint?

    <p>Coracoacromial and coracohumeral ligaments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the scientific study of joints known as?

    <p>Arthrology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of joint is characterized by no joint cavity and connects bones via dense regular connective tissue?

    <p>Fibrous joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What classification of joints allows for extensive movement?

    <p>Diarthrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of joint is typically involved in no movement or very limited movement?

    <p>Synarthrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which types of connective tissue are used to classify joints structurally?

    <p>Fibrous, Cartilaginous, and Synovial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs to fibrous joints in adults as they age, especially when they become synostoses?

    <p>They become ossified</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following characteristics describes cartilaginous joints?

    <p>Lack a joint cavity and are classified as Amphiarthrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are the names of joints typically derived?

    <p>From the bones that create them</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of joint is represented by the costochondral joint?

    <p>Cartilaginous joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the articular cartilage in synovial joints?

    <p>To reduce friction during movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs to some synchondroses over time?

    <p>They ossify</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of synovial fluid in a synovial joint?

    <p>It absorbs shock and nourishes cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the intervertebral joints?

    <p>Cartilaginous/Symphysis: Amphiarthrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of receptor in the synovial joint detects stretch and movement?

    <p>Proprioceptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the articular capsule is true?

    <p>It prevents bones from being pulled apart and has two layers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary category of the true ribs and costal cartilage joint?

    <p>Cartilaginous/Synchondrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of synovial joint allows movement in two planes?

    <p>Condylar joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most freely mobile type of synovial joint?

    <p>Ball-and-socket joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of synovial joint is typified by a bone with a rounded surface fitting into a ring formed by another bone?

    <p>Pivot joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which joint is characterized by the least mobility among synovial joints?

    <p>Plane joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of movement is associated with a saddle joint?

    <p>Movement in two planes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following joints are categorized as uniaxial joints?

    <p>Hinge and pivot joints</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which features are characteristic of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ)?

    <p>Only mobile joint in the skull</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which example is correctly matched to its type of synovial joint?

    <p>Proximal radioulnar joint - Pivot</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes a hinge joint?

    <p>Permits movement confined to a single axis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common disorder associated with the temporomandibular joint (TMJ)?

    <p>Ligament alteration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which joint allows for the greatest range of motion and flexibility?

    <p>Ball-and-socket joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of joint is characterized by flat articular surfaces?

    <p>Plane joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which joint allows for rotational movement without sliding?

    <p>Pivot joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the thick articular capsule in the elbow joint?

    <p>To provide protection to the articulations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What movement is primarily allowed at the elbow joint?

    <p>Flexion and extension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor contributes to the stability of the hip joint?

    <p>Articular capsule, ligaments, and muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ligaments help prevent hyperadduction of the knee joint?

    <p>Fibular collateral ligament and tibial collateral ligament</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of joint is the knee primarily classified as?

    <p>Hinge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition does 'subluxation' refer to?

    <p>Incomplete dislocation of the joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor increases the risk of humeral epicondyle dislocations in children and teenagers?

    <p>Severe stress to the elbow joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of fracture is most common in elderly individuals with osteoporosis?

    <p>Subcapital fracture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a defining characteristic of the knee joint's structure compared to other joints?

    <p>It has no single unified capsule or joint cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ligament of the hip joint helps to stabilize the head of the femur?

    <p>Iliofemoral ligament</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What component is primarily responsible for the support of the elbow joint?

    <p>Bony surfaces of humerus and ulna</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of movement is not allowed at the elbow joint?

    <p>Rotation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures is part of the stability mechanism of the hip joint?

    <p>Ligament of the head of femur</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the articulating surfaces for the humeroradial joint?

    <p>Capitulum of the humerus and radial head</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Bone Resorption

    • Osteoclasts destroy bone matrix using proteases and hydrogen ions
    • Proteases break down organic matrix components
    • Hydrogen Ions contribute to the acidic environment that dissolves inorganic components of bone matrix
    • Occurs when blood calcium levels are low
    • Transcytosis: Transporting macromolecules across the interior of a cell
    • Resorption lacuna: Empty spaces left behind after bone matrix is broken down by osteoclasts

    Cartilage Growth

    • Interstitial growth: Occurs within the cartilage itself, allows growth from within
    • Appositional growth: Occurs at the outer surface of cartilage, allows growth in width
    • Chondrocytes: Mature cartilage cells residing in lacunae
    • Chondroblasts: Immature cartilage cells that actively synthesize and secrete new matrix
    • Perichondrium: Outer layer of connective tissue surrounding cartilage, contains stem cells that differentiate into chondroblasts
    • Hyaline cartilage: Type of cartilage found in joints, nose, and trachea

    Endochondral Ossification

    • Process of bone formation that replaces cartilage with bone
    • Occurs in long bones
    • Epiphyseal plate: Growth plate located at the ends of long bones
    • Articular cartilage: Hyaline cartilage covering the ends of bones in joints, allows for smooth movement
    • Spongy bone: Porous bone tissue found at the ends of long bones
    • Compact bone: Dense bone tissue found in the shafts of long bones
    • Medullary cavity: Space within the shaft of long bones that contains bone marrow
    • Periosteum: Outer layer of connective tissue surrounding bone, contains stem cells that differentiate into bone cells

    Regulating Blood Calcium Levels

    • Parathyroid hormone (PTH) released in response to low blood calcium levels
    • PTH stimulates osteoclast activity, increasing bone resorption and releasing calcium into blood
    • PTH also stimulates the kidneys to increase calcium reabsorption from urine
    • Calcitriol: Active form of vitamin D, promotes calcium absorption from the intestines
    • Calcitonin: Released from the thyroid gland in response to high blood calcium levels
    • Calcitonin inhibits osteoclast activity, reducing bone resorption and lowering blood calcium levels
    • Calcitonin stimulates kidneys to increase calcium excretion in urine

    Osteoporosis

    • Reduced bone mass: Compromises normal bone function
    • Weakened bones: Prone to fractures
    • Factors contributing to osteoporosis: age, race, menopause, smoking
    • Osteopenia: Reduced bone density, occurs with age
    • Hormonal decline: Contributes to bone loss with age

    Bone Fracture and Repair

    • Fracture: Break in bone
    • Occurs due to unusual stress or impact
    • More common with age due to weakened bones
    • Stress fracture: Thin break caused by repetitive loads
    • Pathologic fracture: Occurs due to underlying disease or condition
    • Simple fracture: Bone breaks but does not penetrate the skin
    • Compound fracture: Bone breaks and penetrates the skin

    Bone Repair

    • Fracture hematoma: Blood clot that forms at the fracture site
    • Fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus: Forms around the fracture site, made of cartilage and fibrous tissue
    • Hard callus: Forms as the soft callus is replaced by bone
    • Bone remodeling: Process of reshaping and strengthening the bone after healing
    • Periosteum: Plays a role in bone repair by providing cells and nutrients
    • Medullary cavity: Contributes to the formation of new bone tissue

    Articulations

    • Articulations, or joints, are where bones meet.
    • They allow for movement and stability.

    Joint Classification

    • Structurally categorized based on the presence or absence of a joint cavity and the type of connective tissue:
      • Fibrous
      • Cartilaginous
      • Synovial
    • Functionally categorized based on the range of movement:
      • Synarthrosis (immovable)
      • Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable)
      • Diarthrosis (freely movable)

    Fibrous Joints

    • Connected by dense connective tissue.
    • Lack a joint cavity.
    • Include:
      • Sutures: Found between bones of the skull. Become ossified in adults, forming synostoses.
      • Syndesmoses: Connected by ligaments, allowing for slight movement. Example: distal tibiofibular joint.
      • Gomphoses: Peg-and-socket joints, found between teeth and their sockets.

    Cartilaginous Joints

    • Connected by cartilage.
    • Lack a joint cavity.
    • Include:
      • Synchondroses: Connected by hyaline cartilage. Example: first sternocostal joint, epiphyseal plates.
      • Symphyses: Connected by fibrocartilage. Example: intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis.

    Synovial Joints

    • Contain a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid.
    • Freely movable (diarthroses).
    • Key structures:
      • Articular capsule: Encloses the joint, preventing separation of bones. Has two layers: outer fibrous layer and inner synovial membrane.
      • Articular cartilage: Covers the ends of bones, reducing friction and acting as a shock absorber.
      • Joint cavity: Space between the bones, filled with synovial fluid.
      • Synovial fluid: Lubricates, provides shock absorption, and nourishes articular cartilage.
      • Ligaments: Strengthen and stabilize the joint. Can be extrinsic or intrinsic.
      • Bursae: Fluid-filled sacs that cushion and reduce friction between bones, tendons, ligaments, and muscles.
      • Fat pads: Protect and cushion the joint.

    Types of Synovial Joints

    • Plane: Allow for gliding movements. Example: intercarpal joints.
    • Hinge: Allow for flexion and extension. Example: elbow joint.
    • Pivot: Allow for rotation. Example: radioulnar joint.
    • Condylar: Allow for flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, and circumduction. Example: knee joint.
    • Saddle: Allow for movement in two planes. Example: carpometacarpal joint of thumb.
    • Ball-and-socket: Allow for movement in all planes. Example: shoulder and hip joints.

    Clinical View: Arthritis

    • Group of diseases that cause joint inflammation and degeneration.
    • Symptoms: joint swelling, pain, and stiffness.
    • Types:
      • Gouty arthritis: Caused by high uric acid levels.
      • Osteoarthritis: Degenerative condition caused by cartilage breakdown.
      • Rheumatoid arthritis: Autoimmune disorder that inflames the synovial membrane.

    Shoulder Joint

    • Consists of three joints:

      • Glenohumeral joint: Ball-and-socket, allows for a wide range of movement.
      • Acromioclavicular joint: Plane joint, allows for slight gliding movements.
      • Sternoclavicular joint: Saddle joint, allows for elevation, depression, and circumduction.

    • Shoulder separation: Dislocation of the acromioclavicular joint.

    Knee Joint

    • Largest and most complex joint in the body.
    • Hinge joint, allows for flexion and extension.
    • Contains:
      • Medial and lateral menisci: C-shaped fibrocartilage pads that act as shock absorbers.
      • Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments: Provide stability and prevent excessive movement.
      • Tibial collateral and fibular collateral ligaments: Prevent side-to-side movement.

    Knee Ligament and Cartilage Injuries

    • Tibial collateral ligament injury: Common, usually caused by a blow to the outside of the knee.
    • Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury: Very common, often occurs when the knee is hyperextended.
    • Menisci injury: Can occur due to blows or overuse.
    • Unhappy triad: Triple injury of the ACL, tibial collateral ligament, and medial meniscus, often caused by a lateral blow to the knee.

    Ankle Joint

    • Talocrural joint.
    • Hinge joint, allows for dorsiflexion and plantarflexion.
    • Stabilized by ligaments:
      • Deltoid ligament: Medial side, strong.
      • Lateral ligament: Lateral side, weaker.
      • Tibiofibular ligaments: Stabilize the ankle joint.

    Ankle Sprains and Pott Fractures

    • Sprain: Stretching or tearing of the lateral ligaments, usually caused by overinversion.
    • Pott fracture: Overeversion of the ankle, causing fracture of the medial malleolus and fibula.

    Articulations

    • Bones are too rigid to bend, they meet at joints called articulations
    • Joints are different shapes and have different supporting structures
    • Joints allow different types and ranges of movement
    • Joints are the points where bones, bone and cartilage, or bone and teeth meet

    Classification of Joints

    • Joints are classified based on whether there is a joint cavity, and the type of connective tissue
    • Joints can be Fibrous, Cartilaginous, or Synovial
    • Joints are classified based on their range of motion: Synarthrosis, Amphiarthrosis, and Diarthrosis
    • Synarthrosis - No movement
    • Amphiarthrosis - Limited movement
    • Diarthrosis - Free movement

    Fibrous Joints

    • Fibrous joints are connected by dense regular connective tissue
    • Fibrous joints have no joint cavity
    • Fibrous joints are synarthrosis or amphiarthrosis
    • Fibrous joints become ossified in adults - synostoses

    Cartilaginous Joints: Sympheses

    • Cartilaginous joints lack a joint cavity
    • Cartilaginous joints are amphiarthroses
    • Cartilaginous joints have cartilage between articulating bones
    • Cartilage between articulating bones can be hyaline or fibrocartilage
    • Cartilage in these joints acts as shock absorbers and resist compression and tension

    Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondroses

    • First Sternocostal joint is firmly united to the manubrium, which provides stability to the rib cage
    • Costochondral joints connect the ribs and costal cartilage
    • Costochondritis is inflammation of the costochondral joints
    • The epiphyseal plate is a cartilaginous joint
    • Some synchondroses ossify over time

    Synovial Joints

    • Synovial joints are the most common in the body
    • Synovial joints have a joint cavity, space between bones
    • Synovial joints are all diarthroses
    • Synovial joints are all diarthroses and have key features:
      • Articular capsule, strengthens joints to prevent being pulled apart
      • Articular cartilage, lacks perichondrium, reduces friction, acts as a cushion to absorb joint compression, prevents damage to the ends of bones
      • Joint cavity, space permitting separation of bones
        • Synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid
        • Synovial fluid is viscous and oily
        • Synovial fluid is secretions from synovial membrane cells and filtrate from plasma
        • Synovial fluid lubricates articular cartilage, acts as a shock absorber, nourishes and removes wastes from articular chondrocytes
      • Sensory nerves and blood vessels, innervate and supply articular capsule and ligaments
        • Proprioceptors, detect stretch and movement of a joint
        • Nociceptors, detect damaging or potentially damaging stimuli

    Classification of Synovial Joints

    • Classified by shape of surfaces and movement allowed:
      • Uniaxial joint, movement along one axis
      • Biaxial joint, movement along two axes
      • Multi-axial joint, movement along multiple axes
    • Joints can be classified from least to most mobile:
      • Plane joints, simplest synovial articulation, least mobile diarthrosis, uniaxial, limited movement in one plane, articular surfaces are flat, e.g., intercarpal and intertarsal joints
      • Hinge joints, uniaxial, permits movement in one plane, like a door hinge, e.g., elbow, knee, and interphalangeal joints
      • Pivot joints, uniaxial, bone rotates on longitudinal axis relative to a second bone, e.g., proximal radioulnar joint, e.g., dens of axis and anterior arch of atlas
      • Condylar joints, biaxial, oval convex surface articulating with concave surface, e.g., metacarpophalangeal joints of fingers and thumb
      • Saddle joints, biaxial, convex and concave surfaces resemble saddle shape, greater range of movement than condylar or hinge joints, e.g., carpometacarpal joint of the thumb
      • Ball and socket joints, multiaxial, spherical head of one bone fits into cuplike socket, e.g., coxal and glenohumeral joints, most freely mobile

    Temporomandibular Joint

    • The Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is the only mobile joint in the skull
    • The TMJ has a loose articular capsule, articular disc of fibrocartilage, articular tubercle, Sphenomandibular ligament, Tempromandibular ligament
    • TMJ movements include depression/elevation, protraction/retraction, and excursion.

    TMJ Disorders

    • TMJ disorders are common
    • TMJ disorders most commonly caused by alterations in ligaments securing the joint
    • TMJ disorders can cause clicking or popping as the mouth opens and closes

    Shoulder Joint

    • The glenohumeral joint is commonly called the shoulder joint
    • The glenohumeral joint permits the greatest range of motion of any joint in the body
    • The glenohumeral joint is most unstable and the most frequently dislocated joint
    • The glenohumeral joint is supported by the rotator cuff muscles, which encircle the joint and fuse with the articular capsule
    • glenohumeral joint has a fibrocartilaginous glenoid labrum, a loose articular capsule, a coracoacromial ligament, a coracohumeral ligament, glenohumeral ligaments, the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii, and abundant bursae

    Dislocation of the Glenohumeral Joint

    • Dislocation of the glenohumeral joint is common due to its instability
    • Dislocation of the glenohumeral joint usually occur when a fully abducted humerus is struck
    • A dislocated glenohumeral joint appears flattened and "squared-off"
    • The humeral head is anterior and inferior to the glenohumeral joint capsule

    Elbow Joint

    • The elbow joint is a hinge joint composed of two articulations :
      • humeroulnar joint, trochlea / trochlear notch
      • humeroradial joint, capitulum / radial head
    • Both are enclosed within a single articular capsule
    • The elbow joint is very stable due to interlocking bony surfaces, a thick articular capsules, and multiple ligaments
    • The elbow joint is not as mobile as some other joints

    Ligaments of the Elbow Joint

    • The elbow joint only allows flexion and extension
    • Stress to the elbow joint can damage the ligaments, for example:
      • It can be damaged from a fall onto an outstretched hand with the elbow joint partly flexed
      • It may cause a dislocation from stress and impact

    Subluxation of the Head of the Radius

    • Subluxation is an incomplete dislocation
    • Subluxation involves contact alteration between joint surfaces but remains in partial contact
    • A doctor can maneuver the radial head back into the annular ligament

    Coxal Joint

    • The hip joint is the articulation between the head of the femur and acetabulum of the os coxa
    • The hip joint has an acetabular labrum, a fibrocartilaginous ring, an articular capsule, a ligament of the head of femur
    • The hip joint is more stable and less mobile than the glenohumeral joint
    • The hip joint is supported by the articular capsule, ligaments, and muscles
    • Retinacular fibers are ligamentous fibers of the articular capsule.

    Hip Joint: Intracapsular Spiraling Ligaments

    • The hip joint is very stable in the extended position
    • The hip joint permits flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, and circumduction

    Femoral Fracture

    • Femoral fractures are often referred to incorrectly as "fractured hip"
    • Femoral fractures rotate laterally and are shorter than the other leg
    • Intertrochanteric fractures
      • are extracapsular fractures
      • usually occur in younger to middle-aged individuals due to trauma
    • Subcapital fractures
      • occur within the hip articular capsule
      • usually occur in elderly individuals with osteoporosis
      • may result in tearing of the retinacular arteries and avascular necrosis in the region

    Knee Joint

    • The knee joint is the largest and most complex diarthrosis
    • The knee joint is primarily a hinge joint
    • The knee joint is composed of two separate articulations:
      • tibiofemoral joint
      • patellofemoral joint
    • The knee joint does not have a unified capsule or joint cavity
    • The articular capsule is reinforced by the quadriceps tendon
    • The patellar ligament and fibular collateral ligament prevent hyperadduction
    • The tibial collateral ligament prevents hyperabduction

    Cruciate Ligaments

    • The cruciate ligaments prevent anterior and posterior movement of the tibia relative to fixed femur
    • The anterior cruciate ligament extends from anterior intercondylar area of tibia to lateral condyle of femur
    • The posterior cruciate ligament extends from posterior intercondylar area of tibia to medial condyle of femur

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    Description

    This quiz covers key concepts of bone resorption and cartilage growth, including the roles of osteoclasts, proteases, and hydrogen ions in bone matrix breakdown. Additionally, it examines processes like interstitial and appositional growth in cartilage, along with the functions of chondrocytes and chondroblasts. Test your understanding of these essential biological processes.

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