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What percentage range does water constitute of total human body weight?
What percentage range does water constitute of total human body weight?
Which fluid is considered the largest component of extracellular fluid in terms of volume?
Which fluid is considered the largest component of extracellular fluid in terms of volume?
How many osmoles does 1 mole of magnesium chloride contribute when it dissociates in water?
How many osmoles does 1 mole of magnesium chloride contribute when it dissociates in water?
What is the primary function of the integumentary system?
What is the primary function of the integumentary system?
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Which system is primarily responsible for regulating blood function and maintaining homeostasis?
Which system is primarily responsible for regulating blood function and maintaining homeostasis?
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What is the typical intracellular fluid (ICF) to extracellular fluid (ECF) ratio in a healthy adult?
What is the typical intracellular fluid (ICF) to extracellular fluid (ECF) ratio in a healthy adult?
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Which solute is more dominant in the extracellular fluid compared to intracellular fluid?
Which solute is more dominant in the extracellular fluid compared to intracellular fluid?
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What is the main role of the cardiovascular system in relation to metabolic wastes?
What is the main role of the cardiovascular system in relation to metabolic wastes?
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Which statement accurately describes the movement of small solutes between body fluid compartments?
Which statement accurately describes the movement of small solutes between body fluid compartments?
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What occurs when the osmolarity of the extracellular fluid changes?
What occurs when the osmolarity of the extracellular fluid changes?
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Which factor is NOT involved in the regulation of blood pressure?
Which factor is NOT involved in the regulation of blood pressure?
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What term describes the highest blood pressure recorded during the cardiac cycle?
What term describes the highest blood pressure recorded during the cardiac cycle?
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Which condition is characterized by a resting heart rate of over 100 beats per minute?
Which condition is characterized by a resting heart rate of over 100 beats per minute?
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In terms of homeostasis, what does the body do when regulated variables become lower or higher than normal?
In terms of homeostasis, what does the body do when regulated variables become lower or higher than normal?
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What is the typical range for systolic blood pressure in a healthy adult?
What is the typical range for systolic blood pressure in a healthy adult?
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Which compartment contains potassium in higher concentrations compared to the others?
Which compartment contains potassium in higher concentrations compared to the others?
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Which sensors are responsible for detecting changes in blood pressure?
Which sensors are responsible for detecting changes in blood pressure?
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What is the primary mechanism used to integrate signals during homeostatic control?
What is the primary mechanism used to integrate signals during homeostatic control?
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What occurs when blood glucose levels increase during the fed state?
What occurs when blood glucose levels increase during the fed state?
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Which organ systems play a role in long-term blood pressure control?
Which organ systems play a role in long-term blood pressure control?
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The feedback mechanism primarily used to correct deviations in physiological variables is called what?
The feedback mechanism primarily used to correct deviations in physiological variables is called what?
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Which of the following physiological variables can be influenced by circadian rhythms?
Which of the following physiological variables can be influenced by circadian rhythms?
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What method do sensory cells use to communicate with the central nervous system?
What method do sensory cells use to communicate with the central nervous system?
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In the context of homeostasis, which component is directly responsible for enacting changes to regulated variables?
In the context of homeostasis, which component is directly responsible for enacting changes to regulated variables?
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What is the primary role of the heart in the cardiovascular system?
What is the primary role of the heart in the cardiovascular system?
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Which type of blood vessel returns deoxygenated blood to the heart?
Which type of blood vessel returns deoxygenated blood to the heart?
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How do smooth muscles in small arteries and arterioles affect blood flow?
How do smooth muscles in small arteries and arterioles affect blood flow?
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Which arteries branch from the aorta and supply the head and neck region?
Which arteries branch from the aorta and supply the head and neck region?
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What is the sequence of artery branching from the aorta down to capillaries?
What is the sequence of artery branching from the aorta down to capillaries?
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What function do muscle cells in the body primarily perform?
What function do muscle cells in the body primarily perform?
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Which of the following correctly describes the primary components of cardiac muscle tissue?
Which of the following correctly describes the primary components of cardiac muscle tissue?
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What do red blood cells primarily function to do?
What do red blood cells primarily function to do?
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Which component acts as the control center in a homeostatic control system?
Which component acts as the control center in a homeostatic control system?
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In the blood pressure homeostasis mechanism, which structure acts as a sensor?
In the blood pressure homeostasis mechanism, which structure acts as a sensor?
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Which type of feedback loop is most commonly observed in physiological variables?
Which type of feedback loop is most commonly observed in physiological variables?
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What role do endocrine glands play in the homeostatic control system?
What role do endocrine glands play in the homeostatic control system?
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What happens to blood glucose levels in the fed state?
What happens to blood glucose levels in the fed state?
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Which physiological variable is NOT directly affected by circadian rhythms?
Which physiological variable is NOT directly affected by circadian rhythms?
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During homeostasis, how does the central nervous system receive input on regulated variables?
During homeostasis, how does the central nervous system receive input on regulated variables?
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Which component of the homeostatic control system determines the changes in regulated variables?
Which component of the homeostatic control system determines the changes in regulated variables?
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Which statement best describes a significant characteristic of intracellular fluid compared to extracellular fluid?
Which statement best describes a significant characteristic of intracellular fluid compared to extracellular fluid?
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What is the primary function of the respiratory system in relation to body fluid compartments?
What is the primary function of the respiratory system in relation to body fluid compartments?
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How does the dissociation of solutes like MgCl₂ affect the calculation of osmolarity in body fluids?
How does the dissociation of solutes like MgCl₂ affect the calculation of osmolarity in body fluids?
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What is the approximate volume of interstitial fluid in a typical 70 kg male?
What is the approximate volume of interstitial fluid in a typical 70 kg male?
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Which statement accurately reflects the distribution of body fluids in terms of intracellular and extracellular compartments?
Which statement accurately reflects the distribution of body fluids in terms of intracellular and extracellular compartments?
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Which of the following correctly identifies a function of the integumentary system?
Which of the following correctly identifies a function of the integumentary system?
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What is the consequence of increased intracranial pressure on neurological function?
What is the consequence of increased intracranial pressure on neurological function?
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What factor contributes to the uneven distribution of solutes between intracellular and extracellular fluids?
What factor contributes to the uneven distribution of solutes between intracellular and extracellular fluids?
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Which systemic interaction is crucial for the cardiovascular system to maintain its functionality?
Which systemic interaction is crucial for the cardiovascular system to maintain its functionality?
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Which factor directly affects the maintenance of blood pressure?
Which factor directly affects the maintenance of blood pressure?
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Which statement about transport mechanisms between fluid compartments is true?
Which statement about transport mechanisms between fluid compartments is true?
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What is the term for a resting heart rate below 60 beats per minute?
What is the term for a resting heart rate below 60 beats per minute?
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What defines homeostasis in the context of internal environment regulation?
What defines homeostasis in the context of internal environment regulation?
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What occurs to blood pressure during the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle?
What occurs to blood pressure during the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle?
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Which of the following is NOT a typical range for diastolic pressure in a healthy adult?
Which of the following is NOT a typical range for diastolic pressure in a healthy adult?
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Which of the following conditions is characterized by high blood pressure?
Which of the following conditions is characterized by high blood pressure?
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Study Notes
Body Fluid Compartments
- Potassium is more abundant inside the cell (intracellular fluid, ICF).
- Proteins are found in both ICF and blood plasma but not in interstitial fluid.
- Small solutes can move freely between interstitial fluid and blood plasma but not between ICF and interstitial fluid. They require specific ion channels and transporters.
- Proteins are large and cannot move freely between fluid compartments.
- Water moves freely between all fluid compartments due to aquaporins on cell membranes.
- Changes in osmolarity of the extracellular fluid (ECF) can cause water to shift between ICF and ECF.
- Brain swelling can lead to increased intracranial pressure and neurological symptoms like headache, nausea, and lethargy.
Homeostasis
- Internal environment refers to the ECF that surrounds all individual cells in the body.
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Regulated variables are maintained within predictable ranges, including:
- Concentration of ions in ECF (K+, Ca2+, Na+, pH)
- Blood glucose levels
- Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels
- Blood pressure
- Blood volume
- Body core temperature
- Homeostasis is a state of dynamic constancy. Some variables stay within a narrow range, while others can change significantly throughout the day.
- When regulated variables deviate from the normal range, the body acts to restore them to their set point.
Blood Pressure Homeostasis
- Blood pressure refers to the pressure of blood against the walls of arteries.
- Systolic pressure is the highest blood pressure during the cardiac cycle, occurring after the heart contracts (systole).
- Diastolic pressure is the lowest blood pressure during the cardiac cycle, occurring after the heart relaxes (diastole).
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Normal blood pressure ranges are:
- Systolic: 90-140 mmHg
- Diastolic: 60-90 mmHg
- Hypertension is high blood pressure, while hypotension is low blood pressure.
- Total blood volume, heart rate, and diameter of arteries determine blood pressure.
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Resting heart rate is normally between 60-100 beats per minute (bpm).
- Tachycardia is a heart rate above 100 bpm.
- Bradycardia is a heart rate below 60 bpm.
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Peripheral pulses are felt when palpating peripheral arteries due to the expansion and recoil of arterial walls caused by blood flow. Common pulse points include:
- Carotid
- Brachial
- Radial
- Femoral
- Popliteal
- Posterior tibial
- Dorsalis pedis
Body Systems and Interdependence
- The circulatory system pumps blood throughout the body, delivering oxygen and nutrients while removing metabolic wastes.
- The respiratory system exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- The digestive system provides nutrients and water.
- The urinary system removes water and waste.
- The integumentary system protects the body physically and regulates body temperature.
- The musculoskeletal system supports and allows movement, while also producing red blood cells in the bone marrow.
- The nervous and endocrine systems regulate body functions.
- All body systems are interdependent, meaning they rely on each other to function properly.
Body Fluid Compartments
- Water makes up 50-70% of total human body weight.
- Osmoles are the total number of particles in a solution, taking into account dissociation.
- Osmolarity is the concentration of osmoles per liter (Osm/L).
- Osmolality is the concentration of osmoles per kilogram (Osm/kg).
- Intracellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid inside cells.
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Extracellular fluid (ECF) is the fluid outside cells.
- Interstitial fluid is found in the extracellular space.
- Blood plasma is found within vessels.
- Transcellular fluids include synovial, cerebrospinal, intraocular, and pleural fluids.
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Distribution of body fluids in a 70 kg male:
- Total body fluid: 42 liters
- ICF: 28 liters (2/3 of total body fluid)
- ECF: 14 liters (1/3 of total body fluid)
- Plasma: 3 liters (25% of ECF)
- Interstitial fluid: 11 liters (75% of ECF)
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Solutes are distributed unevenly between fluid compartments.
- Sodium and chloride are more abundant in ECF than ICF.
Homeostatic Control Systems
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Sensors monitor regulated variables. Examples include:
- Sensory cells (thermoreceptors, baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, osmoreceptors)
- Cell components (cell surface receptors, enzymes)
- Control centers integrate signals from sensors and send output signals to effectors.
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Effectors are organs or tissues that change the regulated variable. Examples include:
- Blood pressure: Heart, blood vessels, kidneys
- Blood glucose levels: Liver, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle
- Blood volume and osmolarity: Kidneys, blood vessels
- Neural mechanisms involve sensory cells sending signals to the central nervous system (CNS) via an afferent pathway, and the CNS sending signals to effectors via an efferent pathway. Signals are transmitted as neurotransmitters and electrical signals (action potentials).
- Endocrine mechanisms involve endocrine glands acting as both sensors and control centers. Changes in regulated variables stimulate endocrine glands to secrete hormones into circulation, where these hormones affect specific cells and tissues.
- Neuroendocrine mechanisms involve endocrine glands being activated by signals from the CNS, either through neurohormones or efferent neural pathways.
- Blood pressure homeostasis is achieved by baroreceptors in the carotid sinus and aortic arch, which detect changes in blood pressure and send signals to the medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata then signals the heart and blood vessels to adjust blood pressure back to normal. The renal system is also involved in long-term blood pressure control through neuroendocrine mechanisms.
Properties of Control Mechanisms
- Negative feedback loops are the most common type of control mechanism. They reduce variability of regulated variables by detecting changes and initiating corrective actions.
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Circadian rhythms affect physiological variables like:
- Body temperature
- Concentration of growth hormone and cortisol in blood
- Urinary excretion of ions
- Circadian rhythms follow a 24-hour light-dark cycle, and the CNS receives input from the eyes to influence various organ systems.
- Feedforward control anticipates upcoming changes in regulated variables and adjusts physiological processes to minimize disruption.
Levels of Organization
- Body is organized into multiple levels: atoms & molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism.
- Cells are the basic unit of all living things, capable of carrying out basic functions for survival. These functions include metabolism of carbohydrates and proteins, generation of energy, and specialized functions based on cell type.
- Different types of cells work together to form tissues, tissues form organs, and various organs form organ systems.
- Example: The small intestine is composed of blood vessels, smooth muscles, epithelium, and connective tissues.
Organ Systems
- Organ systems work together to carry out body functions.
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Human Cardiovascular System: Composed of the heart and blood vessels.
- Heart: Made up of cardiac muscles, epithelium, and connective tissue.
- Cardiac muscles contract and relax rhythmically to pump deoxygenated blood from various organs to the lungs and supply oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
- Heart adjusts the strength and frequency of contractions depending on the body's metabolic needs.
- Blood vessels: Made of smooth muscles, epithelium, and connective tissues.
- Arteries: Carry blood from the heart to various organs.
- Veins: Carry blood from various organs back to the heart.
- Major arteries that emerge from the heart:
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Aorta: Largest artery that channels blood from the heart to various organs. It has three branches:
- Brachiocephalic Trunk: Bifurcates into the right common carotid artery and the right subclavian artery.
- Left Common Carotid Artery: Supplies the head and neck region.
- Left Subclavian Artery: Supplies the upper limb and some regions of the head and neck.
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Aorta: Largest artery that channels blood from the heart to various organs. It has three branches:
- Arteries branch into arterioles, which further branch into capillaries and then venules. Lastly, venules converge to smaller veins and then larger veins, eventually returning blood to the heart.
- Smooth muscles in small arteries and arterioles can contract or relax to change diameters, adjusting blood flow to different organs.
Organ Systems Interacting to Maintain Body Functions
- The circulatory system (cardiovascular system) distributes materials by pumping blood through organs, facilitating material exchange between the body and the surrounding environment.
- Different organ systems interact to maintain homeostasis.
- Respiratory System: Responsible for gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide).
- Digestive System: Responsible for nutrient and water absorption.
- Urinary System: Responsible for water and waste excretion.
- Integumentary System: Provides physical protection for the body and regulates body temperature.
- Musculoskeletal System: Supports and moves the body. It is also responsible for red blood cell production in the bone marrow.
- Nervous and Endocrine Systems: Regulate body functions.
- Interdependence: All living tissues and cells depend on the cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive systems for oxygen and nutrient supply. The cardiovascular system relies on the nervous, endocrine, and urinary systems for proper functioning.
Body Fluid Compartments
- Water makes up 50-70% of total human body weight. It acts as a solvent for substances and a medium for biochemical reactions.
- Osmolality: Osmoles per kilogram of solvent (Osm/kg).
- Osmolarity: Osmoles per liter of solution (Osm/L).
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Body fluid compartments:
- Intracellular Fluid (ICF): Fluid inside cells.
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Extracellular Fluid (ECF): Fluid outside cells.
- Interstitial Fluid: Found in the space between cells.
- Blood Plasma: Found within blood vessels.
- Transcellular Fluids: Include synovial, cerebrospinal, intraocular, and pleural fluids.
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Distribution of body fluids:
- Average 70 kg male: 42 liters of total body fluid.
- ICF:ECF ratio: 6:4 to 6.7:3.3.
- ICF makes up 2/3 of total body fluid (28L).
- ECF makes up 1/3 of total body fluid (14L).
- 25% of ECF is plasma (3L).
- 75% of ECF is interstitial fluid (11L).
- Transcellular fluids are negligible.
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Solute Distribution:
- Sodium and chloride: More abundant in extracellular fluid than intracellular fluid.
- Potassium: More abundant in intracellular fluid.
- Proteins: Found in both ICF and blood plasma but not interstitial fluid.
- Small solutes (ions) can move freely between interstitial fluid and blood plasma but not between intracellular and interstitial fluid. This requires specific ion channels and transporters.
- Water: Moves freely between all compartments due to aquaporins on cell membranes.
Homeostasis
- Internal environment: All individual cells in the body are surrounded by extracellular fluid, which constitutes the internal environment.
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Regulated variables: Variables maintained within predictable ranges, including:
- Concentration of ions in ECF (K+, Ca2+, Na+, pH).
- Blood glucose levels.
- Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
- Blood pressure.
- Blood volume.
- Body core temperature.
- Dynamic constancy: Homeostasis is a state of dynamic constancy. Some variables stay within a narrow range, while others can change significantly throughout the day.
- When regulated variables deviate from normal, the body acts to restore them to the set point.
ECF Parameters: Blood Pressure
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Blood Pressure: Pressure of blood against the walls of arteries.
- Blood pressure increases after heart contraction (systole) as blood enters arteries.
- Blood pressure decreases after relaxation of the heart (diastole) as blood leaves arteries.
- Systolic Pressure: Highest blood pressure during the cardiac cycle.
- Diastolic Pressure: Lowest blood pressure during the cardiac cycle.
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Homeostasis of Blood Pressure: Maintenance of blood pressure is necessary for cardiovascular function and health.
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Normal Blood Pressure Ranges:
- Systolic: 90-140 mmHg.
- Diastolic: 60-90 mmHg.
- Hypertension: High blood pressure.
- Hypotension: Low blood pressure.
- Factors influencing blood pressure:
- Total blood volume.
- Heart rate.
- Diameter of arteries.
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Normal Blood Pressure Ranges:
-
Resting Heart Rate: 60-100 bpm.
- Tachycardia: Heart rate greater than 100 bpm.
- Bradycardia: Heart rate less than 60 bpm.
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Peripheral Pulses: Arteries are elastic and expand and recoil when blood flows through them. This expansion and recoil can be felt as a pulse when palpating peripheral arteries:
- Carotid.
- Brachial.
- Radial.
- Femoral.
- Popliteal.
- Posterior tibial.
- Dorsalis pedis.
- Pulse rate indicates heart rate in individuals with normal cardiovascular health.
Homeostatic Control System
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Sensors: Monitor regulated variables.
- Sensory cells: Thermoreceptors, baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, osmoreceptors.
- Cell components: Cell surface receptors, enzymes.
-
Control Center: Integrates signals from sensors and sends output signals to effectors.
- Control centers utilize electrical, chemical, or both signals to control effectors and adjust regulated variables.
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Effectors: Organs/tissues that determine the regulated variable.
-
Examples:
- Blood pressure: Heart, blood vessels, kidneys.
- Blood glucose levels: Liver, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle.
- Blood volume and osmolarity: Kidneys and blood vessels.
-
Examples:
Neural Mechanisms
- Sensory cells send signals to the CNS via an afferent pathway.
- The CNS then sends signals to effectors via an efferent pathway.
- Signals travel along afferent and efferent pathways as neurotransmitters and electrical signals (action potentials).
Endocrine Mechanisms
- Endocrine glands can act as sensors and control centers.
- Changes in regulated variables stimulate endocrine glands to secrete hormones into circulation.
- Hormones circulate throughout the body until they reach target cells/tissues.
Neuroendocrine Mechanisms
- Endocrine glands can be activated by signals from the CNS via neurohormones or efferent neural pathways.
Blood Pressure Homeostasis
- Increased blood pressure stimulates baroreceptors in the carotid sinus (bifurcation of the common carotid artery) and the arch of the aorta.
- The medulla oblongata acts on the heart and blood vessels to decrease blood pressure to normal levels.
- The renal system is targeted by neuroendocrine mechanisms (adrenal glands) for long-term blood pressure control.
Blood Glucose Homeostasis (Fed State)
- After a meal, the body goes into a fed state.
- The digestive system breaks down food into glucose.
- Increased blood glucose levels activate beta cells in the pancreas, which secrete insulin.
- Insulin promotes glucose uptake by cells, glucose storage as glycogen in the liver and muscle, and fat synthesis in adipose tissue.
- These processes reduce blood glucose levels back to normal ranges.
Properties of Control Mechanisms
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Negative Feedback Loops:
- Most physiological variables are regulated by negative feedback loops.
- Changes in regulated variables are detected by sensors.
- Effectors act to change the regulated variable towards normal levels, eliminating the stimulus.
- This reduces variability of the regulated variable.
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Circadian Rhythms:
- Affect physiological variables such as body temperature, growth hormone levels, cortisol levels in blood, and urinary ion excretion.
- Follow a 24-hour light-dark cycle.
- The CNS receives input from the eyes and in response, influences various organ systems.
-
Feedforward Control (Anticipatory Response):
- A control mechanism that acts to minimize deviations from the set point by anticipating changes that are likely to occur. - The CNS prepares the body for an anticipated change by activating specific responses.
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Description
Explore the concepts of body fluid compartments, including the differences between intracellular and extracellular fluids. Understand how various solutes move between these compartments and the importance of homeostasis in regulating the internal environment.
