Blood Physiology Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of blood in terms of waste removal?

  • Transports hormones
  • Removes carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid (correct)
  • Supplies nutrients to tissues
  • Regulates body temperature
  • Which condition results from blood pH falling below 7.35?

  • Acidosis (correct)
  • Hypoalbuminemia
  • Alkalosis
  • Hyperalbuminemia
  • Which of the following represents the primary component of blood volume?

  • Plasma (correct)
  • Red blood cells
  • White blood cells
  • Platelets
  • Which protein is responsible for maintaining osmotic balance in blood?

    <p>Albumin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major cause of hypoalbuminemia?

    <p>Cirrhosis of the liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which electrolyte balance is particularly controlled by blood?

    <p>Potassium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hyperalbuminemia indicates which of the following conditions?

    <p>Severe dehydration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does blood contribute to thermoregulation?

    <p>By regulating core body temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is a common symptom of cobalt deficiency?

    <p>Pernicious anemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein is primarily responsible for the transport of copper in the plasma?

    <p>Ceruloplasmin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the yellow pigment formed from the breakdown of biliverdin?

    <p>Bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of jaundice occurs before bilirubin is transported to the liver?

    <p>Pre-hepatic jaundice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the breakdown of hemoglobin in phagocytic cells, how is iron primarily stored?

    <p>In the form of ferritin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What substance does the liver convert unconjugated bilirubin into for excretion?

    <p>Conjugated bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of jaundice?

    <p>Bilirubin jaundice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to most of the urobilinogen in the intestine?

    <p>It is oxidized to stercobilin or urobilin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common cause of edema?

    <p>Rise in hydrostatic pressure due to cardiac failure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone controls erythropoiesis in response to low oxygen levels?

    <p>Erythropoietin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What deficiency causes abnormal DNA synthesis leading to anemia?

    <p>Vitamin B12 and Folic acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is required for the absorption of vitamin B12 in the small intestine?

    <p>Intrinsic Factor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What roles does hepcidin play in the body?

    <p>Controls iron absorption and release for hemoglobin production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does kidney failure have on erythropoiesis?

    <p>Decreases erythropoietin production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which dietary component is crucial for heme synthesis?

    <p>Iron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect do essential amino acid deficiencies have on hemoglobin?

    <p>Lead to anemia due to protein synthesis impairment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of serotonin during vascular spasm?

    <p>It induces contraction of smooth muscle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the extrinsic pathway of blood coagulation?

    <p>Tissue thromboplastin release.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes the function of MHC proteins?

    <p>They allow T cells to recognize foreign antigens.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cell type is primarily responsible for presenting antigens associated with MHC II proteins?

    <p>Macrophages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of plasmin in the fibrinolytic system?

    <p>To digest fibrin into degradation products.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following inhibitors acts on plasminogen activators in the regulation of fibrinolysis?

    <p>Plasminogen activator inhibitors (PAIs).</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which category of cells expresses MHC-I proteins?

    <p>All nucleated cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Activated natural killer (NK) cells primarily function to:

    <p>Release cytotoxic granules to destroy altered cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Blood Functions

    • Blood supplies tissues with oxygen and nutrients (e.g., glucose, amino acids, fatty acids).
    • It removes waste products from tissues, such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid.
    • Blood has immunological functions, including circulating white blood cells and detecting foreign material using antibodies.
    • It plays a role in self-repair by clotting to stop bleeding.
    • It acts as a messenger by transporting hormones and signaling tissue damage.
    • Blood controls acid-base balance, water balance, and electrolyte balance.
    • It regulates body temperature.

    Blood pH

    • Normal blood pH is maintained within a narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45.
    • A pH below 7.35 indicates acidosis (acidemia).
    • A pH above 7.45 indicates alkalosis (alkalemia).

    Blood Composition

    • Plasma comprises 55% of blood volume.
    • Cellular elements account for 45% of blood volume.
      • Red blood cells (RBCs)/Erythrocytes
      • White blood cells (WBCs)/Leukocytes
      • Platelets/Thrombocytes

    Blood Plasma vs. Serum

    • Plasma is the whole blood without cellular components.
    • Serum is plasma without clotting factors.

    Plasma Proteins

    • Albumin is a major contributor to osmotic pressure and transports lipids and hormones.
    • Globulins transport ions, hormones, lipids, and certain immune components.
    • Fibrinogen is essential for blood clotting.
    • Regulatory proteins include enzymes and hormones.

    Other Plasma Solutes

    • Electrolytes are essential for vital cellular activities and osmotic pressure (e.g., Na+, K+, Cl−, HCO3−).
    • Organic nutrients (e.g., glucose, fatty acids, amino acids) are used for ATP production, growth, and maintenance.
    • Organic wastes (e.g., urea, uric acid, bilirubin, creatinine, ammonium ions) are removed from the body.

    Plasma Proteins - Distribution in Animal Species

    • Albumin predominates over globulin in humans, sheep, goats, and dogs.
    • In horses, pigs, cows, and cats, the relative proportions of albumin and globulin are relatively equal.

    Albumin Functions

    • Maintains colloid osmotic pressure (oncotic pressure) between blood and tissue fluids.
    • Transports thyroid hormones and other fat-soluble hormones.
    • Transports fatty acids to the liver.
    • Transports unconjugated bilirubin.
    • Transports many drugs (e.g., penicillin).
    • Binds calcium ions (Ca2+).
    • Acts as a buffer to regulate pH.

    Oncotic Pressure and Hydrostatic Pressure

    • Oncotic pressure is a form of osmotic pressure exerted by blood plasma proteins (albumin), usually pulling water into the circulatory system.
    • Hydrostatic pressure in blood vessels is the pressure of the blood against the vessel walls, opposing oncotic pressure.

    Hypoalbuminemia and Hyperalbuminemia

    • Hypoalbuminemia is a decrease in blood albumin below normal levels, resulting from conditions such as liver disease, kidney disease, and excessive burns.
    • Hyperalbuminemia is an increase in blood albumin above normal levels, often a sign of dehydration or high-protein diets.

    Edema

    • Edema is abnormal fluid accumulation in the interstitial tissues.
    • Causes include increased hydrostatic pressure (e.g., heart failure) and decreased oncotic pressure (e.g., nephrotic syndrome, liver failure).

    Globulins (Alpha, Beta, and Gamma)

    • Alpha and beta globulins function as substrates for new substances (e.g., angiotensinogen) and transport various substances (ions, hormones, lipids) in the blood.
    • Gamma globulins have immune functions.

    Fibrinogen and Clotting Proteins

    • Fibrinogen is one of several clotting factors involved in the blood clotting process.
    • It plays a role in red blood cell (RBC) Rouleaux formation and blood viscosity.

    Rouleaux Formation

    • Rouleaux formation is a process where RBCs stack together like coins.
    • It frequently occurs when certain serum proteins (especially fibrinogen) are elevated, such as during inflammation.

    Hematopoiesis

    • Hematopoiesis is the formation of various blood cells in the bone marrow.
    • Erythropoiesis is the production of RBCs, while Myelopoiesis is the production of WBCs and platelets.

    Blood Corpuscles/Cells

    •  Red blood cells (RBCs): Erythrocytes
    • White blood cells (WBCs): Leukocytes
    • Platelets: Thrombocytes

    Red Blood Cells (RBCs) Characteristics

    • Human RBCs are biconcave discs.
    • Dog RBCs are biconcave discs.
    • Goat RBCs are more spherical.
    • Camel RBCs are elliptical.
    • Deer RBCs are sickle-shaped.

    Hemoglobin (Hb) Components

    • Hb molecules are composed of four heme groups combined with one globin molecule.
    • Each heme group contains an iron atom that reversibly combines with oxygen forming oxyhemoglobin.
    • Each Hb molecule can carry four molecules of oxygen.
    • Ferrous iron (Fe2+) is critical for oxygen transport.

    Myoglobin

    • Myoglobin, the Hb of muscles, has one polypeptide chain and one heme group, binding one oxygen molecule.

    Abnormal Forms of Hb

    • Methemoglobin is formed by oxidation of ferrous iron to ferric iron, impairing oxygen transport.
    • Carboxyhemoglobin forms in carbon monoxide poisoning, significantly reducing oxygen transport due to carbon monoxide's high affinity for hemoglobin.

    RBC Functions

    • Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues (as oxyhemoglobin) and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs (as carbaminohemoglobin).

    Erythropoiesis Stages

    • Early stages: yolk sac, spleen, and liver
    • Later stages: bone marrow (postnatal)

    Erythropoietin

    • Erythropoietin is a protein hormone produced in the liver (20%) and kidneys (80%) to control RBC production.
    • Production is stimulated by low oxygen levels.

    Conditions Affecting O2 Levels

    • High altitude, increased demand in athletes, anemia, and cardiopulmonary diseases decrease oxygen levels, stimulating erythropoietin production.

    Liver and Bone Marrow in Erythropoiesis

    • Healthy liver stores vital nutrients (B12, folic acid, iron, copper) for erythropoiesis.
    • It's essential in globin synthesis.
    • Healthy bone marrow is crucial to erythropoiesis; aplastic anemia is caused by bone marrow destruction due to irradiation or drug impact.

    Hormones and Erythropoiesis

    • Hepcidin regulates hemoglobin production and iron absorption in the gastrointestinal tract and its release from reticuloendothelial tissue.
    • Thyroid hormones stimulate erythropoiesis.
    • Androgens enhance erythropoietin output and RBC production.
    • Estrogens inhibit erythropoietin effects on stem cells and RBC maturation.
    • Hematopoietic growth factors regulate the proliferation and differentiation of progenitor stem cells to produce RBCs.

    Nutrition for Erythropoiesis

    • Vitamins B12 and folic acid are essential for DNA synthesis in RBC maturation, avoiding anemia.
    • Vitamin B12 also known as "extrinsic factor", requires intrinsic factor from the gastric juice for small intestine absorption.

    Proteins, Iron, Cobalt, and Copper

    • Sufficient essential amino acids are required for hemoglobin (globin) formation.
    • Iron is essential for heme synthesis.
    • Cobalt is a component of vitamin B12, and deficiency causes pernicious anemia.
    • Adequate copper is necessary for oxidation-reduction reactions and various physiological pathways.

    RBC Lifespan

    • RBC lifespan varies among species.

    Fate of RBCs in Phagocytic Cells

    • Hemoglobin is broken down into globin and heme in phagocytic cells.
    • Globin is degraded into amino acids for reuse.
    • Heme breaks down into biliverdin and iron.
    • Iron is reused or stored.
    • Biliverdin converts to bilirubin (water-insoluble).

    Bilirubin Metabolism

    • Bilirubin is transported by albumin.
    • Liver conjugates bilirubin with glucuronic acid (creating conjugated bilirubin- more water soluble).
    • Conjugated bilirubin is excreted in bile and further metabolized into urobilinogen.
    • Urobilinogen converts to urobilin (urine) or stercobilin (feces) for excretion.

    Hemolysis

    • In vivo hemolysis involves conditions like bacterial infections, parasites, immune disorders, genetic defects, or toxins.
    • In vitro hemolysis is caused by improper sample collection, mechanical processing, improper storage, or exposure to water, chemicals, or extremes in temperature.

    Consequences of Hemolysis

    • Hemolytic anemia, jaundice, intravascular hemolysis (hemoglobinemia/hemoglobinuria), and renal issues are all possible results.

    Jaundice

    • Jaundice is caused by a yellow discoloration of skin and mucous membranes from increased bilirubin levels in the blood.
    • Pre-hepatic, hepatic, and post-hepatic jaundice are types based on bilirubin processing issues.

    Anemia

    • Anemia is a condition characterized by reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of blood due to decreased RBCs count, or abnormal RBCs, abnormal Hb content, or impaired oxygen binding.
    • Causes include inadequate RBC production, rapid RBC destruction, or genetic abnormalities.

    Specific Anemia Types

    • Iron deficiency anemia is the most common anemia, caused by insufficient iron intake or absorption, characterized by small RBCs.
    • Pernicious anemia is an autoimmune disorder characterized by a lack of intrinsic factor for B12 absorption, creating abnormally large RBCs.
    • Ruminant animals are less likely to suffer from pernicious anemia due to rumen-microorganism synthesis of vitamin B12.
    • Lead poisoning anemia involves lead's interference with hemoglobin production.
    • Anemia due to chronic diseases often results from compromised production or accelerated destruction of RBCs during illnesses.
    • Anemia due to kidney disease is linked to impeded erythropoietin production (regulating RBCs production).
    • Aplastic anemia is caused by bone marrow damage, leading to decreased RBC production.
    • Anemia from rapid RBC destruction can happen due to G6PD deficiency, hereditary spherocytosis, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, or sickle cell anemia.

    Platelets (Thrombocytes)

    • Platelets are produced at a rate of approximately 200 billion per day, regulated by thrombopoietin.
    • Their lifespan is 8-10 days.

    Platelet Functions

    • Platelets aggregate to form plugs at vessel ruptures, releasing factors to promote vasoconstriction and blood coagulation (e.g., thromboxane A, serotonin, thromboplastin).

    Hemostasis

    • Hemostasis is a series of reactions stopping bleeding, including vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation, clot retraction, and fibrinolysis.

    Blood Coagulation (Clotting)

    • Clotting factors (e.g., fibrinogen, prothrombin) are involved in clotting processes, following either the intrinsic or extrinsic pathway.

    Clot Retraction

    • Clot retraction involves platelets contracting the clot to reduce its size for wound healing, requiring platelets.

    Fibrinolytic System

    • The fibrinolytic system is a process reversing the clotting system, involving plasminogen conversion to plasmin.
    • Products of fibrin breakdown are generated.
    • Plasminogen activation inhibitors and α2-antiplasmin control fibrinolysis.

    Leukocytes (WBCs)

    • Leukocytes are classified into granulocytes (e.g., neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes (e.g., monocytes, lymphocytes).

    Neutrophils

    • Neutrophils are the most common WBCs, part of first-line bacterial defense, characterized by amoeboid movement, chemotaxis, and phagocytosis (engulfing foreign particles).

    Eosinophils

    • Eosinophils play a role in combating multicellular parasites and certain infections, along with allergy and asthma-related mechanisms.

    Basophils

    • Basophils help in inflammatory and allergic responses; they contain heparin and histamine (promotes blood flow).

    Monocytes and Macrophages

    • Monocytes circulate briefly before turning into macrophages in tissues.
    • Macrophages phagocytize pathogens and waste materials, also presenting antigens to initiate immune responses.

    Lymphocytes

    • Lymphocytes are a type of WBC important for antibody-mediated and cell-mediated immunity.
    • Natural killer (NK) cells are involved in innate immunity, controlling tumors and virally infected cells.
    • B cells produce antibodies (humoral immunity), reacting specifically to antigens.
    • Plasma cells result from activated B cells and secrete antibodies.
    • Memory cells are long-lasting cells.
    • Helper T cells (TH) help other lymphocytes.
    • Cytotoxic T cells (Tc) directly destroy infected cells.
    • Suppressor T cells (Ts) regulate immune responses to prevent overreactions.
    • Memory T cells (TM ) react rapidly to re-exposure of a specific antigen.

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