Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which disruption to blood pH would MOST directly impact oxygen delivery to tissues?
Which disruption to blood pH would MOST directly impact oxygen delivery to tissues?
- A slight increase in pH, leading to mild alkalosis.
- A minor decrease in pH, resulting in slight acidosis.
- Fluctuations in pH only affect nutrient transport, not oxygen delivery.
- Any shift in pH, whether acidosis or alkalosis, disrupts enzyme activity and oxygen delivery. (correct)
A patient with liver disease experiences a significant drop in albumin levels. What physiological consequence would be MOST expected as a direct result?
A patient with liver disease experiences a significant drop in albumin levels. What physiological consequence would be MOST expected as a direct result?
- Increased blood pressure due to higher blood viscosity.
- Reduced red blood cell production, leading to anemia.
- Elevated white blood cell count, indicating an immune response.
- Edema (swelling) due to fluid leakage into tissues. (correct)
Following a bacterial infection, a complete blood count reveals a significantly elevated number of neutrophils. What does this observation suggest about the patient's condition?
Following a bacterial infection, a complete blood count reveals a significantly elevated number of neutrophils. What does this observation suggest about the patient's condition?
- The patient is experiencing an allergic reaction.
- The patient has a parasitic infection.
- The patient is in the early stages of fighting off a bacterial infection. (correct)
- The patient has a chronic viral infection.
An athlete is suspected of abusing erythropoietin (EPO). What physiological change would be MOST indicative of EPO abuse?
An athlete is suspected of abusing erythropoietin (EPO). What physiological change would be MOST indicative of EPO abuse?
A patient's mitral valve is failing to close properly during ventricular contraction. What is the MOST likely consequence of this condition?
A patient's mitral valve is failing to close properly during ventricular contraction. What is the MOST likely consequence of this condition?
How does the unique biconcave shape of erythrocytes (red blood cells) directly contribute to their function?
How does the unique biconcave shape of erythrocytes (red blood cells) directly contribute to their function?
A person with type O negative blood is in need of a transfusion. Which blood type(s) can MOST safely be transfused into this patient?
A person with type O negative blood is in need of a transfusion. Which blood type(s) can MOST safely be transfused into this patient?
How do arterioles contribute to the regulation of blood pressure and blood flow to tissues?
How do arterioles contribute to the regulation of blood pressure and blood flow to tissues?
In which type of capillary would you MOST likely find large gaps between endothelial cells, facilitating the passage of cells and large proteins?
In which type of capillary would you MOST likely find large gaps between endothelial cells, facilitating the passage of cells and large proteins?
What structural feature of veins MOST directly counteracts the effects of gravity, particularly within the limbs?
What structural feature of veins MOST directly counteracts the effects of gravity, particularly within the limbs?
An individual experiences a sudden drop in blood pressure due to dehydration. How does the body MOST immediately compensate for this change?
An individual experiences a sudden drop in blood pressure due to dehydration. How does the body MOST immediately compensate for this change?
Which artery is MOST commonly palpated to assess the pulse in the wrist?
Which artery is MOST commonly palpated to assess the pulse in the wrist?
Which immunoglobulin plays the MOST significant role in mediating allergic reactions and parasitic infections?
Which immunoglobulin plays the MOST significant role in mediating allergic reactions and parasitic infections?
During the coagulation phase of hemostasis, what critical conversion leads to the formation of the stabilizing mesh that reinforces a blood clot?
During the coagulation phase of hemostasis, what critical conversion leads to the formation of the stabilizing mesh that reinforces a blood clot?
How does an increased vessel diameter affect blood pressure, assuming cardiac output remains constant?
How does an increased vessel diameter affect blood pressure, assuming cardiac output remains constant?
Which of the following best describes the role of the tunica media in arteries?
Which of the following best describes the role of the tunica media in arteries?
A patient has a condition that reduces the number of B cells. Which function will be MOST affected by this condition?
A patient has a condition that reduces the number of B cells. Which function will be MOST affected by this condition?
If the diastolic pressure increases but the systolic pressure stays the same, what will happen to the pulse pressure?
If the diastolic pressure increases but the systolic pressure stays the same, what will happen to the pulse pressure?
What is the primary role of chordae tendineae and papillary muscles in the heart?
What is the primary role of chordae tendineae and papillary muscles in the heart?
A person starts taking a medication that increases their blood volume. Which of the following is the MOST likely direct effect on their blood pressure?
A person starts taking a medication that increases their blood volume. Which of the following is the MOST likely direct effect on their blood pressure?
Which of the following mechanisms is MOST effective in maintaining blood pressure during sudden standing (orthostatic hypotension)?
Which of the following mechanisms is MOST effective in maintaining blood pressure during sudden standing (orthostatic hypotension)?
Which is the correct equation for calculating cardiac output?
Which is the correct equation for calculating cardiac output?
Which of the following is a characteristic of veins, but not of arteries?
Which of the following is a characteristic of veins, but not of arteries?
How does increasing the length of blood vessels, such as in obesity, affect blood pressure, assuming cardiac output remains constant?
How does increasing the length of blood vessels, such as in obesity, affect blood pressure, assuming cardiac output remains constant?
What is the primary function of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in blood pressure regulation?
What is the primary function of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in blood pressure regulation?
Flashcards
Normal blood pH
Normal blood pH
Blood maintains a slightly alkaline pH of around 7.35 to 7.45, important for enzyme activity and overall cellular function.
Albumin
Albumin
The main protein that maintains osmotic pressure, retaining water in the bloodstream and stabilizing blood pressure.
Leukocytes
Leukocytes
Immune cells, larger than RBCs with a nucleus, including neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.
Neutrophils
Neutrophils
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Erythropoietin (EPO)
Erythropoietin (EPO)
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Atrioventricular (AV) valves
Atrioventricular (AV) valves
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Erythrocyte
Erythrocyte
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Blood Type AB
Blood Type AB
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Blood Type O
Blood Type O
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Arteries
Arteries
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Arterioles
Arterioles
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Capillaries
Capillaries
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Venules
Venules
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Veins
Veins
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Blood Pressure
Blood Pressure
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Cardiac Output (CO)
Cardiac Output (CO)
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Peripheral Resistance
Peripheral Resistance
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Radial artery location
Radial artery location
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Brachial artery location
Brachial artery location
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Popliteal artery location
Popliteal artery location
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Femoral artery location
Femoral artery location
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IgA
IgA
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IgG
IgG
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IgE
IgE
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Hemostasis
Hemostasis
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Study Notes
- Blood maintains a pH of 7.35 to 7.45
- This pH is vital for enzyme activity and cellular function
- Acidosis occurs if pH drops
- Alkalosis occurs if pH rises
- Disruptions in bodily functions can occur with either
Albumin
- Main protein for maintaining osmotic pressure
- Prevents water leakage from bloodstream into tissues
- Maintains blood volume
- Stabilizes blood pressure
- Edema (swelling) results from low albumin due to fluid leakage
Leukocytes
- Immune cells, larger than red blood cells, and have a nucleus
Leukocyte Types
- Neutrophils are the most abundant at ~60%
- Neutrophils are the first responders that engulf bacteria
- Lymphocytes include B & T cells and are key in adaptive immunity
- Monocytes become macrophages to clean up debris
- Eosinophils fight parasites and are involved in allergic reactions
- Basophils release histamine, causing inflammation and allergies
Red Blood Cells
- Lifespan is around 120 days
- Erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates RBC production
- EPO is produced by kidneys in response to low oxygen
- EPO signals red bone marrow to produce more RBCs
- Increase of EPO can occur in athletes
Heart Valves
- AV valves separate atria from ventricles
- The right AV valve is the tricuspid
- The left AV valve is the bicuspid (mitral)
- Valves open to allow blood flow from atria to ventricles
- Valves close to prevent backflow when ventricles contract
- Pressure differences control operation and are supported by chordae tendineae and papillary muscles to prevent valve prolapse.
Erythrocyte Structure
- Small, round, biconcave discs
- Erythrocytes lack a nucleus or organelles, maximizing space for hemoglobin
- Biconcave shape increases surface area for gas exchange
- Biconcave shape allows flexibility to pass through tiny capillaries
- Contains hemoglobin, which binds oxygen (Oâ‚‚) and carbon dioxide (COâ‚‚)
Blood Typing (ABO)
- ABO system is based on antigens on RBC surfaces
- Type A has A antigen, anti-B antibodies
- Type B has B antigen, anti-A antibodies
- Type AB has both A & B antigens, no antibodies and is the universal recipient
- Type O has no antigens, both anti-A and anti-B antibodies and is the universal donor
- Rh factor: If present, blood is Rh+; if absent, Rh–
- Rh factor is important in transfusions and pregnancy (Rh incompatibility)
Arteries
- Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart
- Pulmonary arteries are an exception that carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs
- Thick muscular walls to withstand high pressure from the heart
- Tunica intima: Inner layer with smooth endothelium (reduces friction)
- Tunica media: Thick middle layer with smooth muscle and elastic fibers allowing constriction (vasoconstriction) and dilation (vasodilation)
- Tunica externa (adventitia): Outer connective tissue for support and structure
Arterioles
- Small branches of arteries that control blood flow into capillaries
- They have thinner walls than arteries, but still contain smooth muscle
- Fewer elastic fibers
- Can vasoconstrict or dilate to regulate blood pressure and flow into tissues
Capillaries
- Site of exchange of gases, nutrients, hormones, and waste between blood and tissues
- Extremely thin walls with just one layer of endothelial cells (tunica intima)
- No smooth muscle or outer layers allowing for easy diffusion
- Tiny diameter allowing red blood cells to pass through single file
Capillary Types
- Continuous are the most common- tight junctions, found in muscle, skin, CNS.
- Fenestrated: Have pores for greater exchange (e.g., kidneys, intestines).
- Sinusoidal: Large gaps for cells and proteins to pass (e.g., liver, spleen).
Venules
- Small vessels that collect blood from capillaries and begin return toward the heart
- Slightly thicker walls than capillaries
- Contain some smooth muscle, especially as they grow larger
- Low-pressure vessels
Veins
- Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart
- Pulmonary veins are the exception and carry oxygenated blood from the lungs
- Three layers, like arteries, but with thinner tunica media and less smooth muscle
- Less elasticity
- Larger lumen allowing it to hold more blood
- Veins are blood reservoirs
- Valves are one-way flaps inside veins to prevent backflow
- Surrounded by skeletal muscles that help push blood upward, called the muscle pump
Blood Pressure
- Force of blood pushing against the walls of arteries as the heart pumps
- Measured in mmHg (millimeters of mercury)
- Systolic pressure (top number): pressure during heart contraction
- Diastolic pressure (bottom number): pressure during heart relaxation
- Example: 120/80 mmHg is considered normal
Blood Pressure Factors
- Cardiac Output (CO) is the amount of blood the heart pumps per minute
- Formula: CO = Heart Rate × Stroke Volume
- If more blood is pumped, BP increases
Peripheral Resistance
- Resistance the blood faces as it flows through the arteries
- Influenced by vessel diameter (narrower = more resistance = higher BP)
- Influenced by blood viscosity (thicker blood = more resistance)
- Influenced by length of blood vessels (more in obesity = higher resistance)
Blood Volume
- More fluid in blood vessels results in higher pressure
- Dehydration can lower BP
- Fluid overload can increase BP
Elasticity of Arteries
- Healthy arteries stretch to absorb pressure
- Arteries stiffen with age or arteriosclerosis, so BP rises
###Hormones
- Adrenaline (epinephrine): Increases heart rate and constricts vessels increasing BP
- Aldosterone: Tells kidneys to retain salt and water increasing blood volume and raising BP
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Retains water increasing blood volume
- Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS): Raises BP by vasoconstriction and salt retention
Main Arteries
- Radial artery: Forearm, lateral side (used for pulse)
- Brachial artery: Upper arm (common for BP measurement)
- Popliteal artery: Behind the knee
- Femoral artery: In the thigh, major supplier of leg
Immunoglobulins
- IgG: Most abundant (~75%); long-term immunity, crosses placenta
- IgA: In secretions (tears, saliva, breast milk); mucosal immunity
- IgM: First produced in infections; activates complement system
- IgE: Allergies and parasitic infections; binds to mast cells
- IgD: Less understood, involved in B-cell activation
Blood Clotting
- Hemostasis (stopping bleeding) involves three phases
- Vascular Spasm – constriction of blood vessels
- Platelet Plug Formation – platelets stick to injury site
- Coagulation – cascade of clotting factors turns fibrinogen into fibrin
- Final product: Fibrin mesh that stabilizes the clot
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