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Questions and Answers
What is the main function of blood as the transport medium in the body?
What is the main function of blood as the transport medium in the body?
Which plasma protein is primarily responsible for blood coagulation?
Which plasma protein is primarily responsible for blood coagulation?
Plasma constitutes what percentage of the total blood volume?
Plasma constitutes what percentage of the total blood volume?
What is the primary function of albumen in blood plasma?
What is the primary function of albumen in blood plasma?
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What is the average erythrocyte count for adult females?
What is the average erythrocyte count for adult females?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of plasma proteins?
Which of the following is NOT a function of plasma proteins?
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What is the primary site of formation for most plasma proteins?
What is the primary site of formation for most plasma proteins?
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What is the likely reason for a person living at high altitude to have a higher number of red blood cells?
What is the likely reason for a person living at high altitude to have a higher number of red blood cells?
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What is the clear yellowish fluid that is released during clot retraction called?
What is the clear yellowish fluid that is released during clot retraction called?
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Which of the following factors is not dependent on vitamin K for its synthesis?
Which of the following factors is not dependent on vitamin K for its synthesis?
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Which mechanism results in the closure of a vessel hole with fibrous tissue?
Which mechanism results in the closure of a vessel hole with fibrous tissue?
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What role does calcium (Ca++) play in the blood clotting process?
What role does calcium (Ca++) play in the blood clotting process?
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Which of the following is an in vitro anticoagulant?
Which of the following is an in vitro anticoagulant?
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What condition is characterized by prolonged bleeding after minor trauma?
What condition is characterized by prolonged bleeding after minor trauma?
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How does heparin prevent blood clotting in the body?
How does heparin prevent blood clotting in the body?
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Which of the following statements about vitamin K deficiency is true?
Which of the following statements about vitamin K deficiency is true?
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Which anticoagulant is used primarily for in vitro applications?
Which anticoagulant is used primarily for in vitro applications?
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What is the primary cause of vascular purpura?
What is the primary cause of vascular purpura?
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Which of the following is a feature of hemophilia?
Which of the following is a feature of hemophilia?
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In which of the following scenarios would you expect to see increased clotting time?
In which of the following scenarios would you expect to see increased clotting time?
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What is the primary action of anti-thrombin III?
What is the primary action of anti-thrombin III?
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What is the primary function of erythrocytes?
What is the primary function of erythrocytes?
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Which statement accurately describes hemoglobin (HB) composition?
Which statement accurately describes hemoglobin (HB) composition?
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What stimulates the production of erythropoietin?
What stimulates the production of erythropoietin?
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Which organ is primarily responsible for the production of erythropoietin in adults?
Which organ is primarily responsible for the production of erythropoietin in adults?
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What type of anemia is characterized by the destruction of bone marrow?
What type of anemia is characterized by the destruction of bone marrow?
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What is the role of basophils in the immune response?
What is the role of basophils in the immune response?
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Which of the following statements about white blood cells is true?
Which of the following statements about white blood cells is true?
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What defines leukopenia?
What defines leukopenia?
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What role do thyroid hormones play in erythropoiesis?
What role do thyroid hormones play in erythropoiesis?
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What type of immunity develops later in life and is specific to pathogens?
What type of immunity develops later in life and is specific to pathogens?
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Which of the following is a non-specific defense mechanism?
Which of the following is a non-specific defense mechanism?
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In which condition is there an uncontrolled production of WBCs?
In which condition is there an uncontrolled production of WBCs?
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What vitamins are crucial for the formation and maturation of RBCs?
What vitamins are crucial for the formation and maturation of RBCs?
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What characterizes acquired immunity compared to innate immunity?
What characterizes acquired immunity compared to innate immunity?
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Which of the following mechanisms primarily contributes to vascular spasm during haemostasis?
Which of the following mechanisms primarily contributes to vascular spasm during haemostasis?
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What is the role of T helper cells in cell-mediated immunity?
What is the role of T helper cells in cell-mediated immunity?
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What is the first step in the process of haemostasis?
What is the first step in the process of haemostasis?
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During platelet plug formation, which substance is primarily released by activated platelets?
During platelet plug formation, which substance is primarily released by activated platelets?
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Which type of immunity primarily defends against viral infections?
Which type of immunity primarily defends against viral infections?
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What initiates the extrinsic pathway of blood coagulation?
What initiates the extrinsic pathway of blood coagulation?
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Which factor is essential for converting prothrombin into thrombin during blood coagulation?
Which factor is essential for converting prothrombin into thrombin during blood coagulation?
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What type of cells are primarily involved in humoral immunity?
What type of cells are primarily involved in humoral immunity?
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What is the final step in blood clot formation after fibrin monomers polymerize?
What is the final step in blood clot formation after fibrin monomers polymerize?
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What role does aspirin play in preventing blood clots?
What role does aspirin play in preventing blood clots?
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What occurs directly after the injury of a blood vessel to stop bleeding?
What occurs directly after the injury of a blood vessel to stop bleeding?
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What type of immunity utilizes antibodies to combat pathogens?
What type of immunity utilizes antibodies to combat pathogens?
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What is the general time frame for the formation of a blood clot after trauma?
What is the general time frame for the formation of a blood clot after trauma?
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Study Notes
Blood Composition and Function
- Blood is the extracellular fluid circulating in the cardiovascular system.
- Average volume in a 70 kg man is 5600 ml (80 ml/kg).
- Blood is a transport medium for substances like glucose and oxygen.
- Haemostasis involves stopping bleeding through clotting factors.
- Homeostasis is maintaining internal environment consistency through exchanges with interstitial fluid.
- Blood defends against microorganisms through phagocytosis and antibody production.
Blood Components
- Blood is comprised of cells (45%) and plasma (55%).
- Cells: red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), platelets.
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Plasma:
- 90% water, 10% solids
- Inorganic salts, organic solutes (lipids, glucose, amino acids), and plasma proteins.
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Plasma Proteins (PP):
- 7 g/100 ml (or 7 g/dL) average in normal healthy adults
- Types: Albumen, Globulins, Fibrinogen, and Prothrombin.
- Albumen mainly regulates blood osmolarity.
- Fibrinogen and Prothrombin are crucial for blood clotting.
- The formation of plasma proteins is mainly in the liver, with the exception of gamma globulins produced in lymphoid tissue.
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
- Erythrocytes are the most abundant blood cells, lacking nuclei.
- Normal counts: Adult males (5-5.5 million/mm³), Adult females (4.5-5 million/mm³), Newborns (6-8 million/mm³), Children (3.5-4.5 million/mm³).
- People living in high altitudes often have higher RBC counts due to lower atmospheric oxygen.
- Function: Oxygen transport (lungs to tissues), Carbon dioxide transport (tissues to lungs), Acid-base buffering, Blood viscosity.
- Haemoglobin (Hb): Iron-containing protein that carries oxygen.
- Hb structure: 4 polypeptide chains (globin) with heme groups.
- Adult Hb (HbA): 2 α and 2 β chains
- Fetal Hb (HbF): 2 α and 2 γ chains
- Hb concentration (g/dL): Adult males (13.5-18), Adult females (11.5-16 g/dL), Newborns (can reach 18 g/dL).
Erythropoiesis
- Erythropoiesis is red blood cell production.
- Factors stimulating erythropoiesis: Lower blood oxygen, hemorrhage, cardio-pulmonary diseases, and increased oxygen demand.
- Erythropoietin (EPO) is a glycoprotein hormone (MW = 34,000) primarily produced in the kidney (90%) and liver (10%) in healthy adults
- Stimulates red blood cell production in decreased oxygen states.
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
- Leukocytes are mobile immune system units. (4000-11,000/mm³).
- Types: Granulocytes (Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils) and Agranulocytes (Lymphocytes, Monocytes).
- Granulocyte lifespan: 4-5 days; Lymphocyte & Monocyte lifespan is years.
- Neutrophils: First line of defense against bacterial infection, phagocytosis.
- Basophils: Release heparin (anticoagulant) and histamine, bradykinin & serotonin (allergic reactions).
- Eosinophils: Weak phagocytes, protect against parasitic infections.
- Lymphocytes: Crucial for acquired immunity (described in immunity section).
- Monocytes: Powerful phagocytes; engulf and destroy bacteria and large particles, don't die after phagocytosis.
Pathologic Variations in Leukocyte Counts
- Leukopenia: Low WBC count (<4000/mm³).
- Leukocytosis: High WBC count (>11,000/mm³).
- Agranulocytosis: Bone marrow stops WBC production (e.g., due to drugs, radiation).
- Leukemia: Malignant bone marrow disease; uncontrolled WBC production.
Immunity
- Immunity is the body's defense against harmful organisms.
- Innate (non-specific) immunity: Present from birth, rapid, non-specific, doesn't depend on prior exposure. Mechanisms:
- Physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes).
- Cellular defenses (phagocytes like neutrophils and macrophages).
- Chemical defenses (interferons, lysozymes).
- Acquired (specific) immunity: Develops later, highly specific, slow, based on prior exposure.
- Mechanisms: Humoral immunity (B cells, antibodies) and Cell-mediated immunity (T cells).
Haemostasis
- Haemostasis is blood clotting.
- Steps:
- Vascular spasm (vasoconstriction).
- Platelet plug formation.
- Blood clot formation.
- Clot fibrosis.
- Platelet plug formation: Platelets adhere to exposed collagen, activate, and aggregate forming a plug.
- Blood clot formation: Extrinsic pathway (trauma to tissues) and intrinsic pathway (trauma to blood) activate clotting factors; Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a meshwork that stabilizes the clot.
- Clot retraction: Serum is released from the contracting clot.
Prevention of Blood Clotting
- Endothelial surface factors: Smoothness, glycocalyx repel clotting factors.
- Blood factors: Thrombomodulin (protein that activates protein C, an anticoagulant), antithrombin III, heparin (activates antithrombin III).
Anticoagulants
- In vitro: Prevent clotting outside the body (e.g., citrate, oxalate, EDTA).
- In vivo: Prevent clotting inside the body (e.g., heparin, coumarin derivatives like dicumarol & warfarin).
Anaemias and Blood Disorders
- Anaemia: Reduced Hb or RBC count (below normal range).
- Types: Blood loss anaemia, Aplastic anaemia, Megaloblastic anaemia (vitamin deficiency), Haemolytic anaemia.
- Purpura: Excessive bleeding after minor trauma (thrombocytopenic, thrombotic, vascular).
- Haemophilia: Congenital blood clotting disorder (A, B, C).
Vitamin K and Blood Clotting
- Vitamin K is essential for liver production of some clotting factors (II, VII, IX, X, protein C and its co-factor protein S).
- Deficiency of Vitamin K leads to bleeding tendencies.
- Lack of Vit K in new borns, prolonged use of antibiotics, and severe liver diseases could lead to vit K deficiency.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the composition and functions of blood, including the roles of various components such as cells and plasma. Explore key concepts like haemostasis and homeostasis. Whether you're studying biology or preparing for an exam, this quiz will help reinforce your understanding of this vital fluid.
