Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which characteristic distinguishes blood from water?
Which characteristic distinguishes blood from water?
- Higher density (correct)
- Lower viscosity
- Lighter consistency
- Lesser weight
What proportion of total body weight does blood constitute?
What proportion of total body weight does blood constitute?
- Approximately 2%
- Approximately 20%
- Approximately 15%
- Approximately 8% (correct)
Which of the following is NOT a primary function of blood?
Which of the following is NOT a primary function of blood?
- Transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide
- Generating nerve impulses (correct)
- Regulating pH balance
- Regulating body temperature
Following centrifugation of a blood sample, which layer contains the smallest volume?
Following centrifugation of a blood sample, which layer contains the smallest volume?
Which of the following is a key component of blood plasma that plays a crucial role in blood clotting?
Which of the following is a key component of blood plasma that plays a crucial role in blood clotting?
Which characteristic is exclusive to white blood cells when compared to red blood cells?
Which characteristic is exclusive to white blood cells when compared to red blood cells?
What is the primary role of platelets in the bloodstream?
What is the primary role of platelets in the bloodstream?
A pluripotent stem cell differentiates into either a myeloid stem cell or a lymphoid stem cell. What is the PRIMARY difference in the maturation process of these two cell types?
A pluripotent stem cell differentiates into either a myeloid stem cell or a lymphoid stem cell. What is the PRIMARY difference in the maturation process of these two cell types?
During hemopoiesis, a monoblast differentiates into a monocyte. At what point in this differentiation process does the cell become irreversibly committed to becoming a monocyte, losing its ability to differentiate into other types of blood cells?
During hemopoiesis, a monoblast differentiates into a monocyte. At what point in this differentiation process does the cell become irreversibly committed to becoming a monocyte, losing its ability to differentiate into other types of blood cells?
Consider a scenario where a patient's blood sample is centrifuged, and the plasma layer appears abnormally turbid and has a noticeably elevated concentration of lipids. Which of the following functional impairments is MOST likely to be observed in this patient, based solely on this information?
Consider a scenario where a patient's blood sample is centrifuged, and the plasma layer appears abnormally turbid and has a noticeably elevated concentration of lipids. Which of the following functional impairments is MOST likely to be observed in this patient, based solely on this information?
Blood is more viscous than water.
Blood is more viscous than water.
Plasma constitutes approximately 75% of the total blood volume.
Plasma constitutes approximately 75% of the total blood volume.
Erythrocytes, also known as white blood cells, are the most dense and account for around 45% of blood volume.
Erythrocytes, also known as white blood cells, are the most dense and account for around 45% of blood volume.
The buffy coat, primarily composed of erythrocytes and granulocytes, constitutes approximately 25% of blood volume.
The buffy coat, primarily composed of erythrocytes and granulocytes, constitutes approximately 25% of blood volume.
Progenitor cells, originating from myeloid and lymphoid stem cells within bone marrow, retain the capacity for self-replication indefinitely, thereby maintaining a constant reserve of undifferentiated hemopoietic precursors throughout the lifespan.
Progenitor cells, originating from myeloid and lymphoid stem cells within bone marrow, retain the capacity for self-replication indefinitely, thereby maintaining a constant reserve of undifferentiated hemopoietic precursors throughout the lifespan.
Which hemopoietic growth factor primarily stimulates the production of red blood cells?
Which hemopoietic growth factor primarily stimulates the production of red blood cells?
What is the primary function of thrombopoietin (TPO)?
What is the primary function of thrombopoietin (TPO)?
Why do mature erythrocytes appear as biconcave discs?
Why do mature erythrocytes appear as biconcave discs?
Which of the following occurs during the transformation of erythroblasts to reticulocytes?
Which of the following occurs during the transformation of erythroblasts to reticulocytes?
What is the role of ferroxidase in iron transport?
What is the role of ferroxidase in iron transport?
Which characteristic of methemoglobin distinguishes it from normal hemoglobin?
Which characteristic of methemoglobin distinguishes it from normal hemoglobin?
What physiological response is triggered by decreased erythropoiesis due to low oxygen levels?
What physiological response is triggered by decreased erythropoiesis due to low oxygen levels?
A patient presents with cyanosis, fatigue, and dizziness. Lab results reveal a methemoglobin level of 8%. What is the MOST likely underlying condition?
A patient presents with cyanosis, fatigue, and dizziness. Lab results reveal a methemoglobin level of 8%. What is the MOST likely underlying condition?
Which of the following represents the correct sequence of erythropoiesis, starting from a pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell?
Which of the following represents the correct sequence of erythropoiesis, starting from a pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell?
A researcher is investigating novel therapeutic targets to enhance oxygen delivery in patients with severe anemia. Targeting which of the following processes would MOST directly increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of erythrocytes, assuming all other physiological conditions remain constant?
A researcher is investigating novel therapeutic targets to enhance oxygen delivery in patients with severe anemia. Targeting which of the following processes would MOST directly increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of erythrocytes, assuming all other physiological conditions remain constant?
A male with an erythrocyte count of 5.6 million per microliter is within the typical range.
A male with an erythrocyte count of 5.6 million per microliter is within the typical range.
During erythropoiesis, the erythroblast differentiates directly into a reticulocyte after gaining a nucleus.
During erythropoiesis, the erythroblast differentiates directly into a reticulocyte after gaining a nucleus.
Decreased erythropoiesis leads to hypertension by increasing blood viscosity.
Decreased erythropoiesis leads to hypertension by increasing blood viscosity.
Administration of ferroxidase inhibitors could theoretically reverse the effects of methemoglobinemia in severe cases.
Administration of ferroxidase inhibitors could theoretically reverse the effects of methemoglobinemia in severe cases.
What does a reticulocyte count primarily indicate?
What does a reticulocyte count primarily indicate?
A patient's hematocrit is reported as 32%. According to the provided information, which condition is most likely?
A patient's hematocrit is reported as 32%. According to the provided information, which condition is most likely?
What is the clinical significance of Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV) in routine blood analysis?
What is the clinical significance of Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV) in routine blood analysis?
If a patient's lab results show a Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin (MCH) value outside the normal range (27-31 picograms/cell), what aspect of the red blood cells is directly affected?
If a patient's lab results show a Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin (MCH) value outside the normal range (27-31 picograms/cell), what aspect of the red blood cells is directly affected?
Increased Red Blood Cell Distribution Width (RDW) is associated with which condition?
Increased Red Blood Cell Distribution Width (RDW) is associated with which condition?
What does a hyperchromic result in Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) indicate about red blood cells?
What does a hyperchromic result in Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) indicate about red blood cells?
Which characteristic distinguishes poikilocytosis from anisocytosis?
Which characteristic distinguishes poikilocytosis from anisocytosis?
Why is Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) considered a screening test rather than a diagnostic test?
Why is Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) considered a screening test rather than a diagnostic test?
In cases of suspected anemia, which combination of laboratory results would MOST strongly suggest a diagnosis of microcytic hypochromic anemia?
In cases of suspected anemia, which combination of laboratory results would MOST strongly suggest a diagnosis of microcytic hypochromic anemia?
A patient presents with a constellation of symptoms suggestive of chronic inflammation. Their ESR is significantly elevated, but routine blood tests, including complete blood count and differential, are within normal limits. Which of the following laboratory tests would MOST likely provide additional, specific information to pinpoint the underlying inflammatory condition?
A patient presents with a constellation of symptoms suggestive of chronic inflammation. Their ESR is significantly elevated, but routine blood tests, including complete blood count and differential, are within normal limits. Which of the following laboratory tests would MOST likely provide additional, specific information to pinpoint the underlying inflammatory condition?
Anemia in general is defined based on cell size (MCV) 📏 and amount of hemoglobin (MCH) 💉
Anemia in general is defined based on cell size (MCV) 📏 and amount of hemoglobin (MCH) 💉
- What does the RDW test measure?
- What does the RDW test measure?
True or False: A normal RDW range is 10.5% –True or False: A normal RDW range is 10.5% – 20%. 20%.
True or False: A normal RDW range is 10.5% –True or False: A normal RDW range is 10.5% – 20%. 20%.
An increased RDW value (anisocytosis) may indicate
An increased RDW value (anisocytosis) may indicate
Which of the following is NOT a use of the ESR test?
Which of the following is NOT a use of the ESR test?
The normal ESR value for males is <20 mm/hr, and for females, it is <30 mm/hr.
The normal ESR value for males is <20 mm/hr, and for females, it is <30 mm/hr.
Why is the blood pregnancy test used less often than the urine test?
Why is the blood pregnancy test used less often than the urine test?
What is the underlying cause of the fatigue experienced in anemia?
What is the underlying cause of the fatigue experienced in anemia?
Which of the following is a common cause of iron-deficiency anemia?
Which of the following is a common cause of iron-deficiency anemia?
What is the primary cause of pernicious anemia?
What is the primary cause of pernicious anemia?
Which type of anemia results from excessive blood loss?
Which type of anemia results from excessive blood loss?
What is the underlying mechanism in hemolytic anemia?
What is the underlying mechanism in hemolytic anemia?
What immunological process underlies Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)?
What immunological process underlies Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)?
What is the rationale for administering Rh Immunoglobulin (RhoGAM) to Rh-negative mothers?
What is the rationale for administering Rh Immunoglobulin (RhoGAM) to Rh-negative mothers?
Which condition is characterized by abnormal fluid accumulation in two or more fetal compartments?
Which condition is characterized by abnormal fluid accumulation in two or more fetal compartments?
What is the primary defect in thalassemias?
What is the primary defect in thalassemias?
In beta thalassemia, which globin chains are affected?
In beta thalassemia, which globin chains are affected?
What is the underlying cause of aplastic anemia?
What is the underlying cause of aplastic anemia?
What is the genetic basis of sickle cell anemia?
What is the genetic basis of sickle cell anemia?
In sickle cell anemia, what is the consequence of the altered shape of red blood cells?
In sickle cell anemia, what is the consequence of the altered shape of red blood cells?
What is the predominant type of hemoglobin in healthy adults?
What is the predominant type of hemoglobin in healthy adults?
Which of the following characterizes HbSS in sickle cell anemia?
Which of the following characterizes HbSS in sickle cell anemia?
What is the primary consequence of polycythemia?
What is the primary consequence of polycythemia?
A patient presents with fatigue, paleness, and intolerance to cold. Which laboratory test would be MOST relevant to initially evaluate for a potential diagnosis of anemia?
A patient presents with fatigue, paleness, and intolerance to cold. Which laboratory test would be MOST relevant to initially evaluate for a potential diagnosis of anemia?
A researcher is investigating the mechanism by which sickle cell trait (HbAS) confers resistance to malaria. Which of the following cellular changes is MOST directly responsible for killing malarial parasites in HbAS erythrocytes?
A researcher is investigating the mechanism by which sickle cell trait (HbAS) confers resistance to malaria. Which of the following cellular changes is MOST directly responsible for killing malarial parasites in HbAS erythrocytes?
In α thalassemia, a condition known as hydrops fetalis occurs when all four genes responsible for alpha chain synthesis are defective. What is the primary reason this is fatal?
In α thalassemia, a condition known as hydrops fetalis occurs when all four genes responsible for alpha chain synthesis are defective. What is the primary reason this is fatal?
A patient is diagnosed with anemia due to chronic kidney disease. Which of the following mechanisms is the MOST likely cause of the anemia in this patient?
A patient is diagnosed with anemia due to chronic kidney disease. Which of the following mechanisms is the MOST likely cause of the anemia in this patient?
A patient with sickle cell anemia experiences frequent vaso-occlusive crises. Which of the following interventions would be MOST effective in preventing these crises?
A patient with sickle cell anemia experiences frequent vaso-occlusive crises. Which of the following interventions would be MOST effective in preventing these crises?
A patient is suspected of having beta thalassemia minor. What would the genetic analysis MOST likely reveal?
A patient is suspected of having beta thalassemia minor. What would the genetic analysis MOST likely reveal?
A researcher discovers a novel mutation in the gene encoding ferroportin, a protein responsible for iron export from cells. Which of the following hematological conditions would MOST likely result from this mutation?
A researcher discovers a novel mutation in the gene encoding ferroportin, a protein responsible for iron export from cells. Which of the following hematological conditions would MOST likely result from this mutation?
A patient presents with a history of frequent blood transfusions due to thalassemia major. Which complication is of GREATEST concern due to the increased red blood cell turnover and transfusion frequency?
A patient presents with a history of frequent blood transfusions due to thalassemia major. Which complication is of GREATEST concern due to the increased red blood cell turnover and transfusion frequency?
A hematopoietic stem cell acquires a mutation that impairs its response to erythropoietin. Given the pathophysiology of erythropoiesis, which of the following downstream effects would be MOST likely?
A hematopoietic stem cell acquires a mutation that impairs its response to erythropoietin. Given the pathophysiology of erythropoiesis, which of the following downstream effects would be MOST likely?
Which laboratory test is used to determine red blood cell size in anemia classification?
Which laboratory test is used to determine red blood cell size in anemia classification?
In settings of sufficient iron availability, which metabolic adaptation is MOST critical for sustaining red blood cell production during chronic anemia?
In settings of sufficient iron availability, which metabolic adaptation is MOST critical for sustaining red blood cell production during chronic anemia?
What is the most common symptom associated with anemia?
What is the most common symptom associated with anemia?
Anemia can cause intolerance to cold due to reduced ATP and heat production; is this statement true or false?
Anemia can cause intolerance to cold due to reduced ATP and heat production; is this statement true or false?
Which condition is NOT a direct cause of anemia?
Which condition is NOT a direct cause of anemia?
What is the primary deficiency that directly leads to pernicious anemia?
What is the primary deficiency that directly leads to pernicious anemia?
Pernicious anemia is classified as what type of anemia based on red blood cell size?
Pernicious anemia is classified as what type of anemia based on red blood cell size?
Which cells in the gastric mucosa are directly responsible for secreting intrinsic factor?
Which cells in the gastric mucosa are directly responsible for secreting intrinsic factor?
Where does the absorption of the Vitamin B12-Intrinsic Factor complex primarily occur after it leaves the stomach?
Where does the absorption of the Vitamin B12-Intrinsic Factor complex primarily occur after it leaves the stomach?
A patient with a history of autoimmune disorders develops pernicious anemia. Which pathophysiological mechanism is MOST likely contributing to their condition?
A patient with a history of autoimmune disorders develops pernicious anemia. Which pathophysiological mechanism is MOST likely contributing to their condition?
What is the primary cause of hemorrhagic anemia?
What is the primary cause of hemorrhagic anemia?
Which of the following statements accurately describes chronic hemorrhagic anemia?
Which of the following statements accurately describes chronic hemorrhagic anemia?
Which of the following etiologies is MOST commonly associated with hemolytic anemia?
Which of the following etiologies is MOST commonly associated with hemolytic anemia?
Which factor is LEAST likely to contribute to the development of hemolytic anemia?
Which factor is LEAST likely to contribute to the development of hemolytic anemia?
In which type of anemia does red blood cell lysis occur prematurely, diminishing their typical lifespan?
In which type of anemia does red blood cell lysis occur prematurely, diminishing their typical lifespan?
What is the underlying cause of Beta (β) Thalassemia?
What is the underlying cause of Beta (β) Thalassemia?
Which statement about Beta Thalassemia Major is accurate?
Which statement about Beta Thalassemia Major is accurate?
How many genes are responsible for the production of alpha-globin chains, and therefore implicated in cases of Alpha Thalassemia?
How many genes are responsible for the production of alpha-globin chains, and therefore implicated in cases of Alpha Thalassemia?
Which of the following statements BEST describes the outcome of Hydrops Fetalis?
Which of the following statements BEST describes the outcome of Hydrops Fetalis?
Which characteristic is exclusive to leukocytes (white blood cells) compared to other blood components?
Which characteristic is exclusive to leukocytes (white blood cells) compared to other blood components?
What cellular component is absent in mature white blood cells?
What cellular component is absent in mature white blood cells?
Which of the following is a primary function of leukocytes that distinguishes them from erythrocytes?
Which of the following is a primary function of leukocytes that distinguishes them from erythrocytes?
Which of the following is a characteristic feature of leukocytes that distinguishes them from erythrocytes?
Which of the following is a characteristic feature of leukocytes that distinguishes them from erythrocytes?
Which of the following is present in leukocytes but absent in erythrocytes?
Which of the following is present in leukocytes but absent in erythrocytes?
What structural feature allows leukocytes to migrate out of blood vessels and into surrounding tissues?
What structural feature allows leukocytes to migrate out of blood vessels and into surrounding tissues?
In contrast to erythrocytes, which primarily function within blood vessels, how do leukocytes typically perform their functions?
In contrast to erythrocytes, which primarily function within blood vessels, how do leukocytes typically perform their functions?
What property of white blood cells enables them to leave capillaries and enter the interstitial fluid?
What property of white blood cells enables them to leave capillaries and enter the interstitial fluid?
Which cellular feature allows leukocytes to actively target and engulf pathogens, a function absent in erythrocytes?
Which cellular feature allows leukocytes to actively target and engulf pathogens, a function absent in erythrocytes?
What is a key function that differentiates leukocytes from erythrocytes, enabling them to elicit immune responses?
What is a key function that differentiates leukocytes from erythrocytes, enabling them to elicit immune responses?
What is the most accurate description of leukocytes compared to other blood cells?
What is the most accurate description of leukocytes compared to other blood cells?
Which structural characteristic distinguishes leukocytes as 'complete cells' within the bloodstream?
Which structural characteristic distinguishes leukocytes as 'complete cells' within the bloodstream?
In what significant way do white blood cells differ structurally from red blood cells?
In what significant way do white blood cells differ structurally from red blood cells?
Unlike other blood cells, leukocytes possess a specific attribute that significantly contributes to their immunological functions. What is this attribute?
Unlike other blood cells, leukocytes possess a specific attribute that significantly contributes to their immunological functions. What is this attribute?
What significance does the presence of a nucleus in leukocytes have for their function, compared to erythrocytes?
What significance does the presence of a nucleus in leukocytes have for their function, compared to erythrocytes?
Under normal physiological conditions, approximately what percentage of whole blood volume is comprised of leukocytes?
Under normal physiological conditions, approximately what percentage of whole blood volume is comprised of leukocytes?
Which blood component makes up the smallest percentage of blood volume?
Which blood component makes up the smallest percentage of blood volume?
In a standard complete blood count (CBC), what is the typical percentage range of leukocytes in relation to the total blood volume?
In a standard complete blood count (CBC), what is the typical percentage range of leukocytes in relation to the total blood volume?
Which of the following best represents the proportion of leukocytes within total blood volume, highlighting their role in immune responses rather than volume contribution?
Which of the following best represents the proportion of leukocytes within total blood volume, highlighting their role in immune responses rather than volume contribution?
When considering the total blood volume, which of the following accurately describes the relative abundance of leukocytes?
When considering the total blood volume, which of the following accurately describes the relative abundance of leukocytes?
Leukocytes are the only complete cells in the blood; considering blood composition, how does this impact their oxygen-carrying capacity compared to erythrocytes?
Leukocytes are the only complete cells in the blood; considering blood composition, how does this impact their oxygen-carrying capacity compared to erythrocytes?
A researcher is developing a novel drug that specifically targets the process of diapedesis. Which cell type would be MOST directly affected by this drug?
A researcher is developing a novel drug that specifically targets the process of diapedesis. Which cell type would be MOST directly affected by this drug?
A pathologist observes a blood smear and notes the absence of nuclei in the majority of cells. Which functionality is MOST likely compromised in these cells?
A pathologist observes a blood smear and notes the absence of nuclei in the majority of cells. Which functionality is MOST likely compromised in these cells?
A novel microfluidic device is designed to isolate leukocytes from whole blood based on a structural difference. If the device successfully separates cells lacking hemoglobin, which of the following cell types is MOST likely being targeted?
A novel microfluidic device is designed to isolate leukocytes from whole blood based on a structural difference. If the device successfully separates cells lacking hemoglobin, which of the following cell types is MOST likely being targeted?
Imagine a hypothetical scenario where erythrocytes retained their nuclei throughout their maturation. What would be the MOST SIGNIFICANT direct consequence of this alteration on erythrocyte function?
Imagine a hypothetical scenario where erythrocytes retained their nuclei throughout their maturation. What would be the MOST SIGNIFICANT direct consequence of this alteration on erythrocyte function?
Which virus is the causative agent of infectious mononucleosis (IM)?
Which virus is the causative agent of infectious mononucleosis (IM)?
In infectious mononucleosis, activated B lymphocytes morphologically resemble which type of blood cell, lending to the disease's name?
In infectious mononucleosis, activated B lymphocytes morphologically resemble which type of blood cell, lending to the disease's name?
Which clinical manifestation is least likely to be associated with infectious mononucleosis?
Which clinical manifestation is least likely to be associated with infectious mononucleosis?
What is the MOST accurate statement regarding treatment strategies for infectious mononucleosis?
What is the MOST accurate statement regarding treatment strategies for infectious mononucleosis?
A 19-year-old college student presents with fatigue, fever, sore throat, and significant swelling in the cervical lymph nodes. Initial tests suggest infectious mononucleosis. Which of the following complications, while rare, would warrant IMMEDIATE and aggressive intervention?
A 19-year-old college student presents with fatigue, fever, sore throat, and significant swelling in the cervical lymph nodes. Initial tests suggest infectious mononucleosis. Which of the following complications, while rare, would warrant IMMEDIATE and aggressive intervention?
What is the immediate, initial response to a blood vessel injury during hemostasis?
What is the immediate, initial response to a blood vessel injury during hemostasis?
Which of the following best describes the role of thromboxane A2 (TXA₂) in hemostasis?
Which of the following best describes the role of thromboxane A2 (TXA₂) in hemostasis?
What enzymatic conversion directly leads to a stabilized blood clot during the coagulation cascade?
What enzymatic conversion directly leads to a stabilized blood clot during the coagulation cascade?
Which statement accurately contrasts the initiation mechanisms of the intrinsic and extrinsic coagulation pathways?
Which statement accurately contrasts the initiation mechanisms of the intrinsic and extrinsic coagulation pathways?
If a drug inhibits platelet adhesion but not platelet activation, which of the following stages of hemostasis would be MOST directly affected?
If a drug inhibits platelet adhesion but not platelet activation, which of the following stages of hemostasis would be MOST directly affected?
Match the following coagulation factors with their corresponding names:
Match the following coagulation factors with their corresponding names:
Match the following substances with their actions:
Match the following substances with their actions:
What is the primary mechanism by which plasmin contributes to hemostatic control?
What is the primary mechanism by which plasmin contributes to hemostatic control?
Which biological role is NOT associated with prostacyclin (PGI2)?
Which biological role is NOT associated with prostacyclin (PGI2)?
Which coagulation factor is NOT directly blocked by antithrombin III (AT-III)?
Which coagulation factor is NOT directly blocked by antithrombin III (AT-III)?
What is the primary difference between anticoagulation and antiplatelet mechanisms in antithrombotic drugs?
What is the primary difference between anticoagulation and antiplatelet mechanisms in antithrombotic drugs?
What is the primary mechanism of action of thrombolytic agents such as streptokinase?
What is the primary mechanism of action of thrombolytic agents such as streptokinase?
Which of the following is a characteristic symptom of hemophilia?
Which of the following is a characteristic symptom of hemophilia?
What is the key distinction between a thrombus and an embolus?
What is the key distinction between a thrombus and an embolus?
What is the MOST common inherited bleeding disorder?
What is the MOST common inherited bleeding disorder?
In Von Willebrand's Disease, what factor is deficient?
In Von Willebrand's Disease, what factor is deficient?
Which cell type is primarily affected in multiple myeloma?
Which cell type is primarily affected in multiple myeloma?
How does heparin exert its anticoagulant effects?
How does heparin exert its anticoagulant effects?
A patient is diagnosed with Thrombocytopenia, what does this mean?
A patient is diagnosed with Thrombocytopenia, what does this mean?
Why are individuals with Von Willebrand disease at a higher risk of bleeding complications?
Why are individuals with Von Willebrand disease at a higher risk of bleeding complications?
Considering the mechanisms of hemostasis, which factor would MOST directly counteract the effects of thromboxane A2 (TXA2)?
Considering the mechanisms of hemostasis, which factor would MOST directly counteract the effects of thromboxane A2 (TXA2)?
A researcher is investigating a novel drug that selectively inhibits alpha-2-macroglobulin. Which of the following processes would be MOST directly affected by this drug?
A researcher is investigating a novel drug that selectively inhibits alpha-2-macroglobulin. Which of the following processes would be MOST directly affected by this drug?
Match the hemostatic disorders with their descriptions:
Match the hemostatic disorders with their descriptions:
Flashcards
Blood
Blood
The only liquid connective tissue in the body, heavier, thicker, and more viscous than water. Transports nutrients, regulates temperature and pH.
Centrifugation of Blood
Centrifugation of Blood
Separation technique to identify blood components by density. Reveals plasma, buffy coat, and erythrocytes.
Plasma
Plasma
The liquid component of blood, makes up 55% of blood volume, contains water, proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen), electrolytes, gases, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, waste products.
Hemopoiesis
Hemopoiesis
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Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
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White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
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Platelets
Platelets
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Pluripotent Stem Cell (Hemocytoblast)
Pluripotent Stem Cell (Hemocytoblast)
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Myeloid Stem Cell
Myeloid Stem Cell
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Lymphoid Stem Cell
Lymphoid Stem Cell
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Buffy Coat
Buffy Coat
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Progenitor Cells
Progenitor Cells
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Precursor Cell (-blast)
Precursor Cell (-blast)
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Erythropoietin (EPO)
Erythropoietin (EPO)
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Thrombopoietin (TPO)
Thrombopoietin (TPO)
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Cytokines
Cytokines
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Erythropoiesis
Erythropoiesis
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Reticulocyte
Reticulocyte
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Transferrin
Transferrin
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Methemoglobin
Methemoglobin
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Methemoglobinemia
Methemoglobinemia
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Erythrocytes (RBCs)
Erythrocytes (RBCs)
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Erythropoiesis Stages
Erythropoiesis Stages
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Hemoglobin Functions
Hemoglobin Functions
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Iron Transport by Transferrin
Iron Transport by Transferrin
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Reticulocyte Count
Reticulocyte Count
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Hematocrit
Hematocrit
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Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV)
Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV)
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Mean Cell Hemoglobin (MCH)
Mean Cell Hemoglobin (MCH)
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Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC)
Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC)
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Red Blood Cell Distribution Width (RDW)
Red Blood Cell Distribution Width (RDW)
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Anisocytosis
Anisocytosis
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Poikilocytosis
Poikilocytosis
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Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR)
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR)
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Pregnancy Test
Pregnancy Test
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Anemia
Anemia
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MCV Test
MCV Test
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MCH Test
MCH Test
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Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Iron-Deficiency Anemia
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Pernicious Anemia
Pernicious Anemia
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Hemorrhagic Anemia
Hemorrhagic Anemia
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Hemolytic Anemia
Hemolytic Anemia
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Hydrops Fetalis
Hydrops Fetalis
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Thalassemias
Thalassemias
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Beta (𝛃) Thalassemia
Beta (𝛃) Thalassemia
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Alpha (𝛂) Thalassemia
Alpha (𝛂) Thalassemia
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Aplastic Anemia
Aplastic Anemia
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Sickle Cell Anemia
Sickle Cell Anemia
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Polycythemia
Polycythemia
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Pancytopenia
Pancytopenia
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Anemia Definition
Anemia Definition
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Fatigue in Anemia
Fatigue in Anemia
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Oxygen-Carrying Capacity and Anemia
Oxygen-Carrying Capacity and Anemia
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Causes of Anemia
Causes of Anemia
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Pernicious Anemia Cause
Pernicious Anemia Cause
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Pernicious Anemia: Macrocytic
Pernicious Anemia: Macrocytic
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Intrinsic Factor Source
Intrinsic Factor Source
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Vitamin B12 Absorption Site
Vitamin B12 Absorption Site
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Pernicious Anemia Causes
Pernicious Anemia Causes
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Hemorrhagic Anemia Cause
Hemorrhagic Anemia Cause
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Acute Hemorrhagic Anemia
Acute Hemorrhagic Anemia
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Chronic Hemorrhagic Anemia
Chronic Hemorrhagic Anemia
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Causes of Hemolytic Anemia
Causes of Hemolytic Anemia
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Beta (𝛃) Thalassemia Cause
Beta (𝛃) Thalassemia Cause
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Alpha (𝛂) Thalassemia: Silent Carrier
Alpha (𝛂) Thalassemia: Silent Carrier
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Alpha (𝛂) Thalassemia: Gene Count
Alpha (𝛂) Thalassemia: Gene Count
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Leukocytes
Leukocytes
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What causes IM?
What causes IM?
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Kissing Disease
Kissing Disease
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Why 'mononucleosis'?
Why 'mononucleosis'?
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Cure for IM?
Cure for IM?
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Not a symptom of IM?
Not a symptom of IM?
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Vascular Spasm
Vascular Spasm
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Platelet Plug Purpose
Platelet Plug Purpose
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Coagulation Cascade Result
Coagulation Cascade Result
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TXA₂, Serotonin, ADP Function
TXA₂, Serotonin, ADP Function
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The Intrinsic Pathway
The Intrinsic Pathway
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Prostacyclin (PGI2)
Prostacyclin (PGI2)
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Antithrombin III (AT-III)
Antithrombin III (AT-III)
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Protein C
Protein C
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Alpha-2-macroglobulin
Alpha-2-macroglobulin
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Alpha-1-antitrypsin
Alpha-1-antitrypsin
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Heparin
Heparin
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Fibrinolysis
Fibrinolysis
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Anticoagulants
Anticoagulants
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Activated Protein C (APC)
Activated Protein C (APC)
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Anticoagulants (AC)
Anticoagulants (AC)
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Antiplatelet (AP)
Antiplatelet (AP)
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Thrombolytic Agents
Thrombolytic Agents
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Thrombocytosis
Thrombocytosis
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Thrombocytopenia
Thrombocytopenia
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Hemophilia
Hemophilia
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Hemophilia A
Hemophilia A
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Hemophilia B
Hemophilia B
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Thrombus
Thrombus
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Emboli
Emboli
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Study Notes
- Blood is the only liquid connective tissue.
- Blood is heavier, thicker, and more viscous than water.
- Water makes up a larger percentage of the body's liquid volume.
- Cells are 60-90% water by weight.
- Blood is about 8% of total body weight.
Functions of Blood
- Transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, metabolic wastes, and nutrients.
- Regulates body temperature and pH via buffer systems and hemoglobin.
- Maintains pH of blood.
- Releases nitric oxide (NO) causing vasodilation.
Blood Components
- Separated via centrifugation by density.
- Plasma is the top, least dense layer
- Buffy coat is a small layer (1% of blood) with platelets and leukocytes.
- Erythrocytes are the most dense layer (~45% of blood), also known as red blood cells.
Plasma
- Makes up about 55% of total blood volume.
- It is a yellowish liquid.
- Consists of 91.5% water and 8.5% solutes (proteins).
- Proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen) are produced by hepatocytes.
- Fibrinogen is essential for blood clotting and wound healing.
- Antibodies and immunoglobulins contribute to immunity.
- Includes electrolytes, nutrients, enzymes, and hormones.
- Contains waste products like urea, ammonia, and metabolites.
Formed Elements
- Hemopoiesis is the formation, development, and maturation of blood's formed elements.
Hemopoietic Growth Factors
- Erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates RBC production (erythropoiesis) in red bone marrow.
- Used to treat anemia, chronic kidney disease, and chemotherapy-induced anemia.
- Thrombopoietin (TPO) regulates megakaryocyte growth and maturation.
- Used for patients with low platelet counts.
- Cytokines regulate blood cell maturation in the bone marrow.
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
- Transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues.
- Carries carbon dioxide from tissues back to the lungs.
- Biconcave shape and lacks a nucleus (anucleated).
- Red due to hemoglobin.
- Normal values:
- Male: 5.4 million per µL
- Female: 4.8 million per µL
Erythropoiesis
- RBC production from pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells differentiating into proerythroblasts (pronormoblasts), then erythroblasts (normoblasts).
- Erythroblasts lose their nucleus and organelles to form reticulocytes.
- Reticulocytes are transported to the blood.
- Reticulocytes become erythrocytes 1-2 days after release from the red bone marrow.
- Loss of the nucleus leads to the biconcave shape.
Hemoglobin
- Gives RBCs red color.
- Each RBC contains hundreds of billions of hemoglobin molecules.
- Each hemoglobin molecule contains about 4 heme rings.
- Normal levels:
- Male: 13-18 g/dl
- Female: 12-16 g/dl
- Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- Oxygen "enters" hemoglobin.
- Carbon dioxide only binds with hemoglobin.
Methemoglobin
- Does not effectively bind oxygen.
- Normal concentration is less than 2%.
- High levels cause methemoglobinemia, leading to hypoxia, cyanosis, and death.
Methemoglobinemia
- Hemoglobin is oxidized to methemoglobin (Fe2+ → Fe3+).
- Levels exceeding 70% are lethal.
- Symptoms: cyanosis, fatigue, headache, dizziness.
Iron Transport
- Iron (ferrous state) transported in blood by binding to transferrin.
- Ferrous iron is oxidized by ferroxidase to the ferric state.
- Ferric iron binds with transferrin (made in the liver).
- Transferrin is a serum protein with the highest affinity for iron, for iron transport.
Negative Feedback
- Decreased erythropoiesis can lead to temporary syncope or fainting.
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
- Contributes to the immune system.
- Defends the body against infections and foreign invaders.
- Possess a nucleus, lack hemoglobin, and are larger than RBCs.
- Only complete cells in the blood.
- Do not contain Hgb.
Platelets
- Platelets play a vital part in blood clotting.
- Form a plug at the site of vascular injury.
- Small cell fragments without a nucleus.
- Platelets release TXA₂ (thromboxane 2), serotonin (5-HT), and ADP to activate more platelets during platelet plug formation.
From Stem Cell
- Hemopoiesis begins with immature, pluripotent stem cells or hemocytoblasts in the bone marrow.
- Pluripotent stem cells differentiate into specific cells with distinct responsibilities.
- Myeloid stem cells start development in the red bone marrow and differentiate into progenitor cells.
- Progenitor cells cannot reproduce and are committed to forming specific blood elements.
- Progenitor cells differentiate into precursor cells (-blasts), which then develop into formed elements.
- For example, monoblasts will develop into monocytes.
- Lymphoid stem cells begin development in the red bone marrow but complete it in lymphatic tissue.
- Lymphoid stem cells develop into lymphocytes.
Blood Laboratory Tests
Reticulocyte Count
- Measures the percentage of reticulocytes in the blood.
- Determines the rate of erythropoiesis.
- Normal value ranges from 0.5% to 1.5% of total blood cells.
- Reticulocytopenia indicates a low count.
- Reticulocytosis indicates a high count.
- Abnormal counts may result from bleeding, anemia, kidney disease, or vitamin B deficiency.
Hematocrit
- Measures the percentage of RBC in the blood.
- Normal values:
- Males: 38.8% - 48.6%
- Females: 35.5% - 44.9%
- Low count indicates anemia.
- High count (>65%) indicates polycythemia.
Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV)
- Determines the average RBC size in femtoliters (fl).
- Formula: MCV = (Hematocrit % * 10) / RBC count (millions/mm3).
- Microcytic: low average size.
- Normocytic: normal size (80-100 fl).
- Macrocytic: high average size.
Anisocytosis
- Condition of variation in RBC size.
- Blood may have microcytic and macrocytic RBCs.
Mean Cell Hemoglobin (MCH)
- Measures the average amount of hemoglobin per red blood cell.
- Formula: MCH = Hemoglobin / RBC count (millions).
- Normal value ranges from 27 - 31 picograms/cell.
Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC)
- Measures the amount of hemoglobin per volume of RBCs.
- Formula: MCHC = (Hemoglobin (g/dL) * 100) / Hematocrit %.
- Hypochromic: Low MCHC.
- Normochromic: Normal MCHC.
- Hyperchromic: High MCHC, no white in the middle.
- Normal values range from 32 - 36 grams/dL.
- Normochromic: normal color, uniform weight.
- Hypochromic: less red RBCs, more white in the middle.
- Hyperchromic: very red RBCs, less white in the middle.
Red Blood Cell Distribution Width (RDW)
- Measures the variation in the size of red blood cells.
- Assesses the variation in the size of RBCs.
- Used to diagnose and classify anemias.
- Normal range: 10.5% - 15%.
- Increased RDW indicates anisocytosis, or a wide variation in the size of RBCs.
Anisocytosis
- Irregular distribution of sizes/circumference of RBCs.
- A condition wherein there is a variation in RBC size.
Poikilocytosis
- Observed normal variation in shapes of the red cell population.
- The six types are: Acanthocytes, Codocytes, Dacrocytes, Drepanocytes, Echinocytes, and Elliptocytes.
- Acanthocytes: have thorn-like projections.
- Codocytes: have a darkly stained central area.
- Dacrocytes: are pear-shaped or tear drop-shaped.
- Drepanocytes: are sickle cells.
- Echinocytes: have short thorn-like projections.
- Elliptocytes: are elliptical in shape.
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR)
- Also known as Sedimentation rate or Sed Rate.
- Measures the rate at which red blood cells settle in a vertical tube of blood.
- Does not use a blood centrifuge, since the rate of separation of components is monitored.
- It is a screening test for inflammatory, autoimmune diseases, or cancer, but it is NOT used to diagnose a disease or disorder.
- Normal values:
- Male: less than 20mm/hr
- Female: less than 30mm/hr.
Pregnancy Test
- Determines if your blood contains the hormone, human chronic gonadotropin (hCG).
- This test is more sensitive than urine tests and thus used less often.
- Can detect pregnancy about six to eight days after ovulation.
Erythrocyte Disorders
Anemias
- Indicates a reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.
- Usually defined based on cell size (microcytic, macrocytic, normocytic) and hemoglobin amount.
- A common symptom is fatigue.
- Fatigue stems from a lack of oxygen needed for ATP production.
- Can cause intolerance to cold due to reduced ATP and heat production.
- Caused by a reduced number of RBCs and or decreased hemoglobin levels.
- Symptoms include fatigue, intolerance to cold, and paleness.
- Fatigue and cold intolerance stem from a lack of oxygen needed for ATP production, which generates heat.
- Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV) lab test is used to determine RBC size in anemia classification.
Iron-Deficiency Anemia
- Caused by inadequate iron absorption or excessive loss.
- Is the most prevalent type of anemia worldwide.
- Characterized as microcytic, hypochromic anemia.
- Meat and malunggay are good sources of iron.
- A normal blood smear would be normocytic, normochromic.
- Common in vegetarians, pregnant women, those with heavy menstruation, and frequent blood donors.
Pernicious Anemia
- Caused by a lack of intrinsic factor (IF).
- Is a macrocytic (megaloblastic) anemia, meaning RBCs are larger than normal.
- The stomach's dysfunction leads to intrinsic factor deficiency.
- Vitamin B12 absorption does not occur in the stomach but is needed for RBC production
- The stomach's inability to produce intrinsic factor (IF) needed for Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) absorption in the small intestine.
- Intrinsic Factor (IF) is a glycoprotein produced by parietal cells in the gastric body and fundus,
- The absence of IF leads to decreased Vitamin B12 absorption, reducing RBC production, leading to pernicious anemia.
- Macrocytic/Megaloblastic Anemia.
- Common causes include Vitamin B12 deficiency, liver disease, malabsorption, alcohol use, pernicious anemia, and hypothyroidism.
- High iron intake is not a common cause.
Hemorrhagic Anemia
- Excessive loss of RBCs through bleeding.
- Can be acute or chronic.
- Acute hemorrhagic anemia is caused by extraordinarily heavy bleeding from large wounds or injuries.
- Chronic is caused by slow, prolonged bleeding from stomach ulcers.
Hemolytic Anemia
- Premature rupture of RBCs.
- Presents with distortions in erythrocyte shape.
- Causes include inherent defects, toxins, parasites, antibodies from incompatible blood transfusions, and blood transfusion reactions.
- Hemolytic anemia can be caused by parasites, toxins, and genetic defects.
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)
- Also called Erythroblastosis fetalis, occurs due to blood type incompatibility between mother and baby.
- HDN due to Rh incompatibility is more common.
- Rh factor is a protein on the surface of RBCs; Rh positive indicates its presence, while Rh negative indicates its absence.
- Autoimmune condition where the mother's antibodies target and lyse the fetus's RBCs.
- If the baby's blood cells cross into the mother's circulation, the mother's immune system recognizes them as foreign.
- The mother creates antibodies to attack the foreign blood cells.
- Complications range from mild to severe.
- The mother becomes sensitized, and her immune system retains the antibodies.
- HDN is more likely to occur during the 2nd or subsequent pregnancies or after a miscarriage/abortion.
- Women with Rh-negative blood are identified early in pregnancy through a blood test.
- Rh-negative mothers, who have not been sensitized, are given Rh Immunoglobulin (RhoGAM) to prevent their antibodies from reacting to the baby's Rh-positive RBCs.
- RhoGAM is given around the 28th week of pregnancy and again within 72 hours of giving birth.
Hydrops Fetalis
- Is a serious, life-threatening condition characterized by abnormal fluid accumulation in two or more fetal compartments, leading to edema.
- Occurs during pregnancy and presents a high risk to the fetus's health and survival.
- Severe swelling can interfere with organ function, often resulting in infant death shortly after delivery.
- Causes include is immune and non-immune causes.
Immune Causes
- Include Rh incompatibility between the mother and fetus, leading to HDN, and blood group incompatibilities with antibody reactions.
Non-Immune Causes
- Include genetic disorders, infections (e.g., Parvovirus), structural abnormalities, metabolic disorders, and cardiac abnormalities.
Thalassemias
- Are a group of genetic blood disorders with abnormal hemoglobin production, leading to anemia.
- Caused by mutations in genes controlling hemoglobin production.
- Caused by a defect or absence of genes responsible for alpha- or beta-chain synthesis, leading to premature RBC death.
- Components synthesis is reduced or absent.
- Characterized by microcytic, hypochromic, short-lived RBCs.
- Treatment includes blood transfusions.
- Types include 𝛃 thalassemia and 𝛂 thalassemia.
𝛃 Thalassemia
- Synthesis of beta chains are defective or missing.
- A defect or absence of beta-globin chain synthesis causes it.
- Minor 𝛃 Thalassemia: Only 1 gene is defective
- It is false that in 𝛃 Thalassemia Major that only one gene is defective because in 𝛃 Thalassemia Major, both genes are defective
- Synthesized by 2 genes.
- Means there are 2 types of 𝛃 thalassemia:
- Minor: Only 1 gene is defective
- Major: Both genes are defective
𝛂 Thalassemia
- Synthesis of alpha chains is defective or missing.
- Synthesized by 4 genes.
- Types:
- Silent Carrier: 1 gene is defective. This is a mild form of Alpha 𝛂 Thalassemia
- It is false that Hydrops Fetalis results from one alpha gene that is defective because Hydrops Fetalis (the most severe form of Alpha Thalassemia) results from all four defective alpha genes and is fatal for the
- 𝛂 thalassemia minor: 2 genes are defective
- Hb H disease: 3 genes are defective
- Hydrops fetalis: All 4 genes are defective causing Fetal death, since alpha chains are needed for HbF synthesis
Aplastic Anemia
- A rare but serious blood disorder.
- There is a decrease or failure in the production of all types of blood cells in the bone marrow.
- Includes stem cells, RBCs, WBCs and platelets.
- Pancytopenia results: a condition with reduced numbers of all three major blood cell types.
- Causes include toxins, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.
- Treatment includes bone marrow transplant with immunosuppression.
Sickle Cell Anemia
- Indicates abnormal hemoglobin (Hgb-S) present in RBCs, creating long, stiff, rod-like shaped RBCs.
- Sickle RBCs rupture easily and can obstruct blood vessels.
- The lifespan decreases to less than 20 days if a high hemolysis rate occurs against erythropoiesis, resulting in hemolytic anemia.
- Low oxygen supply to the tissues results in tissue damage
- It is an inherited condition
- SCA genes grant resistance to malaria: heterozygotes are relatively protected against malaria death due to altered sickle cell plasma membrane causing potassium leakage, which kills malarial parasites.
- Homozygous patients suffer from sickle cell anemia and are highly susceptible to malaria death.
- Symptoms include Hand-foot syndrome in children with swelling of the feet and wrists
- Pain in the limbs and back in the elderly.
- Treatment includes analgesics, antibiotics, and blood transfusions.
Normal Hemoglobin Types
- HbA/ HbA1: 95-98% for healthy adults
- HbA2: 2-3% for healthy adults
- HbF: 50-80% for newborns, gradually declines throughout life
Abnormal Hemoglobin Types
- HbS: Mutations occurring in the beta globin chains (6th position).
- Sixth position of beta chain glutamic acid is replaced by valine.
- HbAS: A mutation in only 1 B globin chain, asymptomatic
- Is a heterozygous mutation
- Have normal life spans
- HbSS: A mutation in both B globin chains.
- Is a homozygous mutation showing normal symptoms of anemia
Polycythemia
- Abnormal increase in circulating RBCs, indicated by a hematocrit over 65%.
- Results in increased blood viscosity, increased BP, and thrombosis.
- Piling up of too many RBCs trying to enter smaller blood vessels.
Additional Information
Infectious Mononucleosis
- Caused by the Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV).
- Commonly known as the "Kissing Virus" due to transmission through oral contact.
- Named "mononucleosis" because it causes B lymphocytes to resemble monocytes.
- There is no specific cure.
- Common symptoms include:
- Fatigue
- Enlarged lymph nodes
- Sore throat
- High blood pressure is not a symptom.
Hemostasis
- First response to a damaged blood vessel: vascular spasm.
- Platelet plug formation is for temporarily sealing small blood vessel injuries.
- Final result of the coagulation cascade: conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin.
- The extrinsic pathway is activated by external trauma and the intrinsic pathway is triggered by internal vessel damage.
Substances that affect Hemostasis
- Prostacyclin (PGI2) is a powerful inhibitor of platelet adhesion and release.
- Antithrombin III (AT-III) blocks the action of factors II, IX, X, XI, and XII.
- Protein C inactivates factors V and VIII and enhances the activity of plasminogen activators.
- Alpha-2-macroglobulin inactivates thrombin and plasmin.
- Alpha-1-antitrypsin inhibits factor XI.
- Heparin combines with AT-III, increasing its effectiveness in blocking thrombin.
- Prostacyclin (PGI2) is also known as Prostaglandin I2 (PGI2).
- Prostacyclin is a naturally occurring molecule derived from arachidonic acid, a fatty acid present in cell membranes.
- Prostacyclin is primarily synthesized by endothelial cells and WBCs, opposing the action of TXA2.
- Prostacyclin has a potent vasodilatory effect, helping to relax and widen blood vessels, contributing to blood pressure regulation.
- Prostacyclin inhibits platelet aggregation or clumping, helping prevent the formation of unwanted blood clots.
- Prostacyclin is anti-inflammatory and involved in the modulation of the immune response.
- Anticoagulants inhibit the formation or activity of blood clots.
- Activated protein C (APC) inactivates clotting factors V & VIII.
- Antithrombotics include anticoagulants and anti-platelets.
- Anticoagulants slow down clotting, reduce fibrin formation, and reduce clot formation and growth.
- Examples of anticoagulants: Heparin and Warfarin.
- Anti-platelets prevent platelets from clumping and prevent clot formation.
- Aspirin is an example of an anti-platelet.
- Thrombolytic agents dissolve blood clots.
- Streptokinase is an example of a thrombolytic agent.
Hemostatic Disorders
- Thrombocytosis is an abnormal increase in the platelet count.
- Thrombocytopenia is an abnormal decrease in the platelet count.
- Hemophilia is a deficiency or absence of a blood clotting factor and is a sex-linked, inherited disorder.
- The defective gene in hemophilia is carried on the X chromosome.
- Hemophilia A: Deficiency of factor VIII.
- Hemophilia B: Deficiency of factor IX.
- Hemophilia C: Deficiency of factor XI.
- Symptoms of Hemophilia include numerous bruises, deep muscle bleeding and joint bleeding.
- Intravascular clots can be induced by roughened endothelial surfaces of blood vessels due to atherosclerosis, trauma, or infection which induce platelet adhesion.
- Thrombus: A stationary clot that forms in a blood vessel.
- Emboli: Dislodged and transported thrombus to other parts of the body, air bubbles, fat, debris from broken bones, tumor cells.
- Von Willebrand’s Disease is a deficiency in VWF and Factor VIII and is the most common inherited bleeding disorder which leads to excessive bleeding.
- Developing hemophilia C is possible but rare in those with with Von Willebrand’s Disease
- Von Willebrand’s Disease affects males and females equally and there is a 50% chance of passing this gene on his/her child.
- Multiple Myeloma is a cancerous disorder of plasma cells with an increased amount of plasma cells where abnormal plasma cells often form tumors in bones or soft tissues of the body.
- Plasma cells develop from B cells, a type of WBC that is made in bone marrow.
- Plasma cells make a different antibody to fight each type of bacteria or virus that enters the body to stop infections and diseases.
- Abnormal production of plasma cells can form tumors in bones or soft tissues.
Fibrinolysis
- It is a process in which blood clots are dissolved or broken down after they have served their purpose.
- Plasminogen is activated into Plasmin.
- Plasmin dissolves the clot by digesting fibrin threads & inactivating fibrinogen (CFI), prothrombin (CF II) & CF V, VIII, XII).
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