Biotechnology Applications Quiz

Biotechnology and Genomics

• Biotechnology is the application of technology, processes, inventions, or methods to living organisms.
• DNA manipulation allows scientists to modify bacteria to protect crops from pests, or modify crops themselves to increase yields.
• Biotechnologies have produced insulin, hormones, antibiotics, and medicines.
• Comparative genomics provides new insights into evolutionary relationships amongst species.
• DNA sequencing reveals genetic makeup.
• DNA manipulation presents social and ethical dilemmas.

Selective Breeding

• Selective breeding involves choosing organisms with desired characteristics to mate for offspring.
• It leverages naturally occurring genetic variation to pass wanted traits to the next generation.
• An example of selective breeding is the evolution of corn from teosinte.

Hybridization & Inbreeding

• Hybridization involves crossing dissimilar individuals to combine desirable traits from both parents.
• An Example: Combining disease resistance with high yields in plants.
• Inbreeding involves the continued breeding of similar individuals.
• A result of inbreeding is a higher chance of recessive alleles leading to defects.
• Less genetic variation can make a species more susceptible to emerging pathogens.

Mutation

• Mutations are heritable changes in DNA.
• Mutations can occur spontaneously or be induced by mutagens (radiation).
• Mutations can be useful in bacteria due to their rapid growth rate.
• Bioremediation utilizes microbes to remove pollutants from the environment, including agricultural chemicals like pesticides and fertilizers.
• Microbial activity is also used cleaning up oil spills.

Polyploidy

• Polyploidy is when an organism has an incorrect number of chromosome sets.
• Polyploidy is typically fatal in animals.
• Polyploidy can lead to larger and stronger plants compared to diploid relatives.
• Some examples of polyploid plants include wheat and various fruits.

Human Genome Project

• The Human Genome project sequenced the human genome (3 billion base pairs).
• The project mapped the location of genes within the genome.
• It began in 1990 and was largely completed by 2003.
• Sequencing has led to discoveries about diseases and ancestry.
• Ethical considerations regarding the use of genetic information are raised by this project.

Function of Human Genes

• About 25% of human genes have unknown functions.
• Genes are involved in protein trafficking, cell structure, motility, transport, immunity, cell growth, and development, other metabolism, and miscellaneous functions.

DNA Extraction

• Every cell contains DNA, which can be isolated for study.
• Lysis buffer disrupts cell membranes, releasing DNA.
• Enzymes (protease and RNase) remove proteins and RNA.
• Centrifugation separates cellular debris from the DNA solution.
• DNA precipitates with alcohol.
• Restriction enzymes cut DNA into fragments.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

• PCR is a technique for amplifying specific DNA sequences.
• PCR is useful for analyzing genetic diseases, detecting contaminants in DNA samples, and increasing DNA for sequencing.
• DNA is heated to separate the strands, primers bind, new DNA strands are synthesized.
• The cycle is repeated.

Gel Electrophoresis

• Gel electrophoresis separates DNA, RNA, or proteins by size.
• Samples are loaded onto a gel, and an electric field moves the molecules through the gel.
• Smaller molecules move faster and further than larger molecules.
• Separated molecules are visualized using stains.

Chain Termination/Dideoxy Method

• Used to determine the DNA base sequence.
• DNA is replicated with fluorescently labeled dideoxy nucleotides.
• Termination of DNA synthesis occurs with each dideoxy nucleotide.
• Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments based on length to determine base sequence.

Next-Generation Sequencing

• Automated techniques allow for fast and cost-effective DNA sequencing.
• Model organisms are studied to understand and apply biological processes.
• Examples of model organisms include E.coli, S. cerevisiae, fruit fly, mouse, and human.

Database

• Databases store biological information, like DNA sequences (GenBank, NCBI).
• Tools like BLAST compare DNA sequences from GenBank to construct evolutionary trees.
• Whole genome sequencing and whole exome sequencing provide comprehensive genomic information.

DNA Microarrays

• Used to analyze gene expression by detecting the presence of specific DNA fragments.
• DNA fragments are attached to a solid surface (glass or silicon chip).
• mRNA is isolated from healthy and diseased cells.
• Labelled mRNA is applied, and the presence/absence of specific genes is identified.
• Use in genomic studies and diagnostics is wide-ranging.

Recombinant DNA

• Recombinant DNA involves artificially creating DNA molecules by inserting foreign DNA into a plasmid.
• This has been used for the creation of bacteria to produce insulin and other pharmaceutical products.
• Genetic markers can identify bacteria that carry the plasmid.

Bacterial Transformation

• Bacteria can take up foreign DNA.
• Recombinant DNA can be delivered into bacteria; used to study gene expression.
• The transformation process, and techniques for selecting transformed bacteria, are critical for Biotechnology.

CRISPR

• CRISPR-Cas9 is a gene editing tool.
• It allows scientists to precisely target and modify DNA sequences.
• CRISPR has applications in gene therapy and other areas of biotechnology.

Genetic Engineering

• Techniques to alter an organism's genotype to modify traits or express a new trait.
• Often involves incorporating foreign DNA or modifying existing genes through cloning, and insertion of genes to make new proteins or remove harmful proteins.
• Genetically modifying organisms are often used for food production and as model organisms. This can result in both advantages and disadvantages.

Cloning

• The process of making identical copies of an individual or an organism.
• Cloned animal (Dolly) that resulted from transferring DNA from another animal.
• Can be in multicellular animals or unicellular (bacteria).
• Cloning has numerous applications; but many disadvantages.

Drawbacks of Cloning

• Low success rates.
• Lifespan concerns.
• Potential physical abnormalities.
• Ethical objections to human cloning.

Animals

• 30% of U.S. milk supply comes from cows injected with milk-producing hormones.
• Pigs have been genetically modified to produce lean meat.
• Salmon have been genetically modified for faster growth.
• Mosquitoes have been used to transmit diseases, and are used to control their population.

Agriculture

• Genetic modification has made food production more efficient, cost-effective, and resilient.
• Modifications include producing crops resistant to pests and diseases.
• Genetically modified crops offer higher yields.
• Considerations exist due to long-term effects on the environment and human health.

Genetically Modified Foods (GM Foods)

• Advantages: higher yields, uses less land and energy, better cost.
• Disadvantages: loss of genetic diversity, lack of long term studies.

Identification

• DNA fingerprinting can identify unique DNA sequences (except for identical twins) useful in forensic investigations and various other applications.
• Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sites into segments.
• PCR multiplies the selected segments.
• Gel electrophoresis separates DNA segments by size.
• DNA sequences identify unique patterns. Applications in forensics, criminal cases, paternity tests, and confirming ancestry.

Ethics

• Ethical considerations exist when using genetic modification techniques.
• Patenting of genetic material, access to genetic information, and potential discrimination are major issues.
• Use of genetic modification to understand or control organism's behavior, disease, or characteristics.
• Ethical implications of cloning and germ-line modification.