Biomolecules: Carbohydrates and Proteins

Carbohydrates: Provide energy for cells, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO)
- Monosaccharides (e.g. glucose, fructose)
- Disaccharides (e.g. sucrose, lactose)
- Polysaccharides (e.g. starch, cellulose)
Proteins: Perform structural, enzymatic, and transport functions, composed of amino acids
- 20 standard amino acids, classified into essential and non-essential
- Primary structure (sequence of amino acids)
- Secondary structure (alpha helix, beta sheet)
- Tertiary structure (3D shape)
- Quaternary structure (protein-protein interactions)
Lipids: Energy storage, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO)
- Triglycerides (fats and oils)
- Phospholipids (cell membranes)
- Steroids (hormones, cholesterol)
Nucleic Acids: Store genetic information, composed of nucleotides
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
- RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose to pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH
Citric Acid Cycle: Breakdown of acetyl-CoA to CO2, producing ATP, NADH, and FADH2
Fatty Acid Oxidation: Breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl-CoA, producing ATP and NADH
Electron Transport Chain: Generation of ATP from NADH and FADH2
Protein Synthesis: Translation of mRNA into a polypeptide chain

Catalysts: Increase reaction rates without being consumed
Substrate: Molecule that binds to an enzyme
Active Site: Region of the enzyme where substrate binds
Enzyme Inhibition: Reduction of enzyme activity
- Competitive inhibition (substrate binding site)
- Non-competitive inhibition (allosteric site)

Hormones: Chemical messengers that transmit signals between cells
Receptors: Proteins that bind to hormones or signaling molecules
Signal Transduction: Pathway of molecular interactions that transmit signals
Second Messengers: Molecules that amplify signals (e.g. cAMP, IP3)

Chromatography: Separation of molecules based on properties (e.g. size, charge)
Electrophoresis: Separation of charged molecules based on size and charge
Spectroscopy: Analysis of molecular structure using electromagnetic radiation
- UV-Vis spectroscopy
- Infrared spectroscopy
- NMR spectroscopy

Carbohydrates: Provide energy for cells, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO)
- Monosaccharides are simple sugars, e.g. glucose, fructose
- Disaccharides are formed by linking two monosaccharides, e.g. sucrose, lactose
- Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates, e.g. starch, cellulose
Proteins: Perform structural, enzymatic, and transport functions, composed of amino acids
- There are 20 standard amino acids, classified into essential and non-essential
- Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in a protein
- Secondary structure includes alpha helix and beta sheet formations
- Tertiary structure is the 3D shape of a protein
- Quaternary structure involves protein-protein interactions
Lipids: Energy storage, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO)
- Triglycerides are fats and oils, composed of glycerol and fatty acids
- Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes
- Steroids are lipids that include hormones and cholesterol
Nucleic Acids: Store genetic information, composed of nucleotides
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-stranded molecule
- RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded molecule

Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose to pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH
- Occurs in the cytosol of cells
- Produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules
Citric Acid Cycle: Breakdown of acetyl-CoA to CO2, producing ATP, NADH, and FADH2
- Occurs in the mitochondria
- Produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2 molecules
Fatty Acid Oxidation: Breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl-CoA, producing ATP and NADH
- Occurs in the mitochondria
- Produces ATP and NADH molecules
Electron Transport Chain: Generation of ATP from NADH and FADH2
- Occurs in the mitochondria
- Produces ATP molecules
Protein Synthesis: Translation of mRNA into a polypeptide chain
- Occurs in the ribosomes
- Requires amino acids, mRNA, and ribosomes

Catalysts: Increase reaction rates without being consumed
- Lower the activation energy of a reaction
- Remain unchanged after the reaction
Substrate: Molecule that binds to an enzyme
- Fits into the active site of the enzyme
- Is converted into a product
Active Site: Region of the enzyme where substrate binds
- Has a specific shape and charge
- Determines the enzyme's specificity
Enzyme Inhibition: Reduction of enzyme activity
- Competitive inhibition: substrate binds to active site, blocking the enzyme
- Non-competitive inhibition: inhibitor binds to allosteric site, altering the enzyme's shape

Hormones: Chemical messengers that transmit signals between cells
- Produced by endocrine glands
- Travel through the bloodstream to reach target cells
Receptors: Proteins that bind to hormones or signaling molecules
- Specific binding sites for hormones
- Trigger a response in the target cell
Signal Transduction: Pathway of molecular interactions that transmit signals
- Involves a series of protein-protein interactions
- Leads to a response in the target cell
Second Messengers: Molecules that amplify signals
- Examples include cAMP, IP3, and Ca2+
- Produced in response to hormone binding

Chromatography: Separation of molecules based on properties
- Types include paper, gel, and high-performance liquid chromatography
- Separate molecules based on size, charge, and polarity
Electrophoresis: Separation of charged molecules based on size and charge
- Types include agarose and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
- Separate molecules based on size and charge
Spectroscopy: Analysis of molecular structure using electromagnetic radiation
- Types include UV-Vis, infrared, and NMR spectroscopy
- Provide information on molecular structure and bonding