Biomaster: Biology Overview - Tema 1-2-3

• The title of the text is "REPASITO - TEMA 1-2-3 BIOMASTER"

Biology

• Etymology of biology is derived from 'BIOS' = life and 'LOGOS' = study
• Biology studies living organisms, including their origin, evolution, classification, structure, function, and heredity
• It also studies the interactions of organisms with each other and their environment

Branches

• Micology studies fungi
• Taxonomy studies classification
• Paleontology studies fossils
• Phycology studies algae
• Protozoology studies protozoans
• Ethology studies behavior
• Bacteriology studies bacteria
• Pathology studies diseases
• Etiology studies the origin of diseases

Relationship with other sciences

• Physics relates to optics, matter, and energy (biophysics)
• Astrophysics relates to radiations
• Chemistry relates to biochemistry
• Ethnology relates to human customs
• Anthropology relates to human beings
• Logic relates to reasoning
• Health sciences relates to disease prevention

Levels of organization

Chemical Level

• Subatomic particles are the smallest components of matter, including hadrons, quarks, protons, neutrons, electrons, neutrinos, muons, pions, kaons, leptons, and bosons
• Atomic level comprises the smallest, indivisible part of an element, with protons, neutrons, and electrons, represented by symbols such as H, O, C, N, S, and P (Bioelements)
• Molecular level consists of particles with identical or different atoms, such as O2, H2O, NH3, and CH4
• Macromolecular level involves the union of monomers forming polymers, with weights in thousands of Daltons, seen in starch, glycogen, cellulose (pol. glucose), proteins (pol. amino acids), nucleic acids (pol. nucleotides), and organic/inorganic biomolecules
• Supramolecular complexes (prebiotic level) are formed by various molecules like lipoproteins, glucolipids, glycoproteins, viruses, chromatin, as well as complexes such as glycocalyx, plasma membranes, cell walls, and cytoskeleton
• Cellular organelles (subcellular, organelle, or organoid) consist of several supramolecular complexes that do not perform nutrition, relation, or reproduction, including mitochondria, peroxisomes, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts, nucleus, Golgi apparatus, and ribosomes (the last abiotic level)

Biological Level

• Cellular level represents the fundamental unit of living matter
• It’s a collection of organelles with functions of nutrition, relation, and reproduction in unicellular and multicellular organisms. Examples include erythrocytes, neurons, ova, myocytes, hepatocytes, enterocytes, protozoans, dinoflagellates, diatoms, archaea, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, cyanobacteria, bacteria, osteoblasts, tracheids, parenchymal cells, collenchymal cells and sclerenchymal cells
• Tissue level (histoco, histological) are associations of cells in multicellular organisms with the same origin and function, found in animals as epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve tissues
• This includes adipose, hepatic, muscular, and bone tissues; and in plants as parenchymal, collenchymal, sclerenchymal, xylem, dermal, and fundamental tissues
• Organic level is where tissues group together to form organs in advanced multicellular individuals
• In vertebrates, examples include the lungs, brain, eyes, tongue, stomach, spleen, bones, pancreas, kidney, liver, intestines, and skin, as well as the heart
• In invertebrates, examples include the brain, ocelli, compound eyes, antennae, and nephridia; in plants examples include the root, leaf, stem, flowers, and fruits
• Apparatuses and systems level is the union of organs that perform common functions in apparatuses (different types of tissues: digestive, circulatory, excretory, reproductive) and systems (a same type of tissue predominates: nervous, bone, muscular)

Ecological Level

Abiotic Levels

• Organism, individual: a being with its own form, a set of devices and systems.
• Population: a group of individuals of the one species, with reproductive capacity.
• Community: populations of two or more different species that occupy the same geographic area at the same time (biocenosis).
• Ecosystem: relationship between the set of living beings (biocenosis) and the inert physical area or space in which they live (biotope) (36 ecosystems of Peru)
• Biome: Groups more than one ecosystem with similar climatic and geographic factors
• Biosphere: Highest level of biological organization (atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere)

Bioelements

• There are 118 chemical elements, 92 of which are natural and approximately 40 are required by living things, 20 are biogenic
• Of these, 6 are organogens or primary that form organic molecules, 5 secondary and 9 non-variables
• Macroelements are essential macronutrients (99.6% of living matter, all are biogenic), they are not generally toxic
• The order of abundance from most to least is O, C, H, N, Ca, P (ochoncape), then: K, S, Na, CI, Mg
• The primary elements (6) are organogens O, C, H, N, P, S
• The most abundant organogen element is O, the least abundant is S
• CHON make up 96% of living matter
• CHO are in all organic biomolecules
• N is in amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides, chlorophyll, hemoglobin, and types of carbohydrates and lipids
• P is in nucleotides, coenzymes, phospholipids, and inorganic molecules like phosphates and mineral salts
• S is in cysteine and methionine (amino acids), glycoproteins, vitamin B, coenzyme A, bile, cartilage, adrenal glands, and insulin
• The secondary elements (5) are Ca, K, Na, Cl, Mg
• The most abundant secondary element is Ca, the least abundant is Cl or Mg
• Microelements are micronutrients, trace elements (0.4% of living matter). Only non-variable elements are biogenic
• They usually have toxic potential if there are excesses
• The non-variable elements (9) are F, B, Y, Mo, Co, Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn (FBI MOCO ZANCUDO FEMENINO)
• These must not vary in living beings, a change can mean an adverse effect, all are biogenic
  • F: Bone maintenance, prevention of cavities
  • B: Flowering and fruiting in plants
  • Y: 99% Thyroid -> Hydrolysis of Thyroglobulin -> triiodothyronine (T3) and tetraiodothyronine (T4) or thyroxine, deficiency = goiter, cretinism, hypothyroidism, abundance hyperthyroidism
  • Mo: Processes proteins and genetic material, decomposition of toxins
  • Co: Component of cyanocobalamin B12 (anti-anemic vit.), is absorbed in the small intestine thanks to the intrinsic factor of the castle
  • Zn: Enzyme activator, constitutes the insulin protein
  • Cu: Enzyme activator, tyrosine and ceruloplasmin cofactor, intermediate in the respiratory chain by cytochrome C oxidase by metabolic activity in the mitochondria of the brain, heart and kidney; prosthetic group of hemocyanin (O2 and nutrients in insect blood)
  • Fe: Fe2 + Beta porphyrin = Heme -> prosthetic group (activator) of proteins: hemoglobin (O2 and CO2), Myoglobin (O2), cytochrome (e mitochondrial crest). In animals Fe3 + (ferritin) accumulates in the liver, spleen and bone marrow (more accumulation Fe in the form of Hemosiderin)
  • Mn: Enzyme activator
• The variable elements (7) are Se, Li, Si, Cr, Br, Al, NI (SELENA AND LILI FEEL LIKE THEY ARE JOKING ALNICOLAS)
• These chemical elements may or may not be in a living being
  • Se: Antioxidant
  • Li: improves neurotransmission, treatment of manic-depressive psychosis
  • Si: Resistance and elasticity of the connective tissue, hair, skin, nails; in vegetables: cereals such as calcium silicates in the cell wall (more quantity in the horsetail plant = Equisetumcaudatum)
  • Cr: insulin activator, deficiency diabetes, arteriosclerosis
  • Br: Cofactor of collagen IV
  • Al: regulates sleep, increases brain activity, ossifies cartilages
  • Ni: Cofactor bacteria, fungi, algae and plants (fixes nitrogen in legumes), important in glycogenesis improving insulin activity

Biomolecules (immediate principles)

• These are associations of bioelements that make up living things
• In a cell: water 80%, proteins 15%, lipids 2-3%, carbohydrates 1-2%, mineral salts 1%, others 1%
• The most abundant biomolecule in dry weight is protein
• Inorganic biomolecules do not have a C-C or C-N bond, such as water, acids, bases, insoluble mineral salts (precipitates in shells, teeth, bones) and soluble ones (positive and negative electrolytes), dissolved gases such as 02, CO2
• Water (protoxide of hydrogen) is 80% of the cell, 95% is free water (in the form of H20) and 5% bound water (immobilized water attached to other structures such as proteins). With tetrahedral structure, angle between 2 hydrogens of 104.5° and distance of 0.96A°
• Permanent dipole: partial negative charge of O and partial positive charge of H (electronegativity is greater in O than in H)
• Each H20 molecule can be joined to 4 H20 molecules, through hydrogen bonds (electrostatic intermolecular force of molecular attraction of water, is weaker than the interatomic covalent bond)

Properties of Water

• Solvent power: ability to dissolve substances (universal solvent)
• Dissociation in ionic solutes (NaCl) and dilution in covalent solutes (sugar)
• Hydrolysis: participates in the decomposition of organic molecules: proteins -> amino acids, polysaccharides -> monosaccharides (reverse process = condensation)
• Latent heat of vaporization: the heat of vaporization is the amount of heat that needs 1g of water to pass from liquid to vapor state: 1grH20 (liquid) at 100° C-> 539.5cal, 1grH20 (liquid) at 37° C-> 575.0cal, 1grH20 (liquid) at 25° C-> 581.1cal
• Surface tension: high cohesion of water molecules, by hydrogen bond linkages through dipole-dipole forces (van der waals = unites molecules not elements)
• Cohesion: electrostatic bonding by hydrogen bonding between water molecules (hydrostatic skeleton: earthworms, turgor: plants)
• Adhesion: ability of water to bind to other polar molecules
• Capillarity: (adhesion + cohesion) attraction between water molecules and water molecules with other polar molecules on solid surfaces
• Thixotropy: water in its union with proteins forms a colloidal state (gel) that can be transformed by physical actions to an aqueous state (amoebas = plasma gel and plasma sol)

Functions of Water

• Transport: mobilization of 02, CO2 and nutrients (blood); waste substances (urine), lipids, proteins (lymphatic system)
• Structural: cell shape and volume
• Thermoregulatory: regulates body temperature with sweat (related to heat of vaporization)
• Lubricant: protects against friction (synovial, cerebrospinal, pleural, amniotic fluid)
• Chemical: chemical reactions such as hydrolysis, condensation
• Mineral salts and electrolytes: reaction of a strong acid and a strong base
• Insoluble mineral salts form precipitates in hard structures, such as shells, ear stones of the inner ear (CaCO3 calcium carbonate), skeletons, teeth (Ca3 (PO4) 2 calcium phosphate, Ca 5 (PO4) 3 (OH) hydroxyapatite), pectin in plants

Soluble mineral salts or Electrolytes

• The salt is dissolved in water, it dissociates into ions (cations + and anions-)
• Extracellular ions: Na +, Ca2 +, (cations) +, (cations) CI-, HCO3-(anions)
• Intracellular ions: K +, MG +2 (cations), H2PO4-(acid phosphate anion)
• Buffer buffers regulate and prevent the pH from changing abruptly intracellular buffer: acid phosphate or hydrogen phosphate, extracellular buffer: bicarbonate
  • Ca2+: involved in blood coagulation, found in bones as salts and SER
  • Mg2+: chlorophyll component, muscle work and enzyme activation
  • Cu2+: hemocyanin component (hemolymph)
  • Na+yK+: Conduction of nerve impulse and muscle contraction, regulate osmotic balance. Most abundant electrolytes
  • Cl-, most abundant extracellular anion

Functions of electrolytes

• Essential for growth and reproduction
• Maintains the acid-base balance of body fluids
• Control and help maintain the osmotic pressure of water (Na and K)
• They intervene in metabolic processes such as cellular respiration