Podcast
Questions and Answers
What does the term 'logy' in biology refer to?
What does the term 'logy' in biology refer to?
- Science of living organisms
- Knowledge of cells
- Theory of organisms
- Study of life (correct)
Which of the following statements is part of the Cell Theory?
Which of the following statements is part of the Cell Theory?
- Living organisms are made up of one type of cell only.
- Cells arise spontaneously from non-living matter.
- All cells possess a nucleus.
- Cells are the basic units of structure and function in all organisms. (correct)
What distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells?
What distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells?
- Prokaryotic cells have a nucleus.
- Eukaryotic cells lack a plasma membrane.
- Prokaryotic cells have a rigid cell wall. (correct)
- Eukaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles.
Who was the first to observe microorganisms, significantly advancing the field of biology?
Who was the first to observe microorganisms, significantly advancing the field of biology?
What role do plasmids play in prokaryotic cells?
What role do plasmids play in prokaryotic cells?
Which of the following is true regarding the unique shape of a cell?
Which of the following is true regarding the unique shape of a cell?
What is one characteristic of eukaryotic cells compared to prokaryotic cells?
What is one characteristic of eukaryotic cells compared to prokaryotic cells?
Which statement accurately describes eukaryotic cell organelles?
Which statement accurately describes eukaryotic cell organelles?
What distinguishes rough endoplasmic reticulum from smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
What distinguishes rough endoplasmic reticulum from smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
Which of the following organelles are directly involved in cellular respiration?
Which of the following organelles are directly involved in cellular respiration?
What is the primary function of the nucleolus within the nucleus?
What is the primary function of the nucleolus within the nucleus?
How does the plasma membrane maintain its integrity and fluidity?
How does the plasma membrane maintain its integrity and fluidity?
Which structure is responsible for anchoring cells in animal tissues?
Which structure is responsible for anchoring cells in animal tissues?
What role do ribosomes play in eukaryotic cells?
What role do ribosomes play in eukaryotic cells?
Which cellular structure is NOT part of the endomembrane system?
Which cellular structure is NOT part of the endomembrane system?
Which cytoskeletal component is primarily involved in muscle contraction?
Which cytoskeletal component is primarily involved in muscle contraction?
What is the primary function of the Golgi apparatus?
What is the primary function of the Golgi apparatus?
What is the main role of chloroplasts in plant cells?
What is the main role of chloroplasts in plant cells?
In eukaryotic cells, what does the term 'fluid mosaic model' refer to?
In eukaryotic cells, what does the term 'fluid mosaic model' refer to?
What substance moves against concentration gradients during active transport?
What substance moves against concentration gradients during active transport?
What is the characteristic structure of eukaryotic ribosomes?
What is the characteristic structure of eukaryotic ribosomes?
What is the function of the nuclear pore complex?
What is the function of the nuclear pore complex?
What is the main purpose of meiosis in sexual reproduction?
What is the main purpose of meiosis in sexual reproduction?
What happens during the crossing-over event in meiosis?
What happens during the crossing-over event in meiosis?
Which phase of meiosis is characterized by the separation of homologous chromosomes?
Which phase of meiosis is characterized by the separation of homologous chromosomes?
What is a key difference between meiosis and mitosis?
What is a key difference between meiosis and mitosis?
What role does independent assortment play during meiosis?
What role does independent assortment play during meiosis?
In which phase does the synapsis of homologous chromosomes occur?
In which phase does the synapsis of homologous chromosomes occur?
What is the end result of meiosis II?
What is the end result of meiosis II?
What distinguishes the tetrad formation during meiosis?
What distinguishes the tetrad formation during meiosis?
What is the significance of chiasmata in meiosis?
What is the significance of chiasmata in meiosis?
Which process does NOT occur during meiosis?
Which process does NOT occur during meiosis?
How does meiosis contribute to genetic diversity?
How does meiosis contribute to genetic diversity?
During which stage are sister chromatids separated in meiosis?
During which stage are sister chromatids separated in meiosis?
What is the reduction division in meiosis?
What is the reduction division in meiosis?
What advantage does aerobic respiration have over anaerobic processes?
What advantage does aerobic respiration have over anaerobic processes?
What was a significant consequence of increased atmospheric oxygen levels?
What was a significant consequence of increased atmospheric oxygen levels?
Which process is central to the endosymbiotic theory?
Which process is central to the endosymbiotic theory?
What evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory regarding mitochondria and chloroplasts?
What evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory regarding mitochondria and chloroplasts?
What does Gibbs free energy (ΔG) indicate about a chemical reaction?
What does Gibbs free energy (ΔG) indicate about a chemical reaction?
What role do enzymes play in biological reactions?
What role do enzymes play in biological reactions?
How do coenzymes differ from cofactors?
How do coenzymes differ from cofactors?
What is the primary energy carrier in cells?
What is the primary energy carrier in cells?
What does the first law of thermodynamics state?
What does the first law of thermodynamics state?
What is a key characteristic of exergonic reactions?
What is a key characteristic of exergonic reactions?
How does the Cambrian explosion relate to oxygen levels?
How does the Cambrian explosion relate to oxygen levels?
What is the significance of ATP hydrolysis in cellular processes?
What is the significance of ATP hydrolysis in cellular processes?
What underlies the importance of chemical energy in biological processes?
What underlies the importance of chemical energy in biological processes?
What is the primary outcome of meiosis in terms of chromosome number?
What is the primary outcome of meiosis in terms of chromosome number?
Which process introduces genetic variation during meiosis?
Which process introduces genetic variation during meiosis?
What are the end products of meiosis?
What are the end products of meiosis?
What occurs during Metaphase I of meiosis?
What occurs during Metaphase I of meiosis?
Which of the following describes a bivalent?
Which of the following describes a bivalent?
What is the significance of crossing over?
What is the significance of crossing over?
During which phase does independent assortment occur?
During which phase does independent assortment occur?
What is the role of meiosis in sexual reproduction?
What is the role of meiosis in sexual reproduction?
What are gametes?
What are gametes?
Which of the following best describes the outcome of Meiosis II?
Which of the following best describes the outcome of Meiosis II?
The process of genetic variation through independent assortment is essential for which of the following?
The process of genetic variation through independent assortment is essential for which of the following?
Which phase follows Anaphase I in meiosis?
Which phase follows Anaphase I in meiosis?
Why is genetic variation important for natural selection?
Why is genetic variation important for natural selection?
What is the main function of the spindle apparatus during cell division?
What is the main function of the spindle apparatus during cell division?
Which phase of the cell cycle involves the duplication of DNA?
Which phase of the cell cycle involves the duplication of DNA?
What does the process of cytokinesis result in?
What does the process of cytokinesis result in?
In which phase do chromosomes align at the spindle midpoint?
In which phase do chromosomes align at the spindle midpoint?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of the kinetochore?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of the kinetochore?
What type of cell cycle do prokaryotic cells undergo?
What type of cell cycle do prokaryotic cells undergo?
Which characteristic is NOT typically associated with living organisms?
Which characteristic is NOT typically associated with living organisms?
What is a fundamental component of a virus?
What is a fundamental component of a virus?
According to the reducing atmosphere hypothesis, which condition facilitated the formation of organic molecules?
According to the reducing atmosphere hypothesis, which condition facilitated the formation of organic molecules?
What results from oxygenic photosynthesis?
What results from oxygenic photosynthesis?
Which of the following best describes the Miller-Urey experiment?
Which of the following best describes the Miller-Urey experiment?
What happens during the anaphase stage of mitosis?
What happens during the anaphase stage of mitosis?
What is the main role of checkpoints within the cell cycle?
What is the main role of checkpoints within the cell cycle?
Which of the following structures is involved in the formation of the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis in animal cells?
Which of the following structures is involved in the formation of the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis in animal cells?
Which type of cells utilize a cell plate during cytokinesis?
Which type of cells utilize a cell plate during cytokinesis?
What is the role of common electron carriers such as NAD+/NADH and FAD/FADH2 in cellular processes?
What is the role of common electron carriers such as NAD+/NADH and FAD/FADH2 in cellular processes?
In which cellular organelle does photosynthesis primarily occur?
In which cellular organelle does photosynthesis primarily occur?
What concept proposed by Hippocrates relates to the early understanding of genetics?
What concept proposed by Hippocrates relates to the early understanding of genetics?
Which of Mendel's laws states that alleles segregate during gamete formation?
Which of Mendel's laws states that alleles segregate during gamete formation?
What does codominance in genetics illustrate?
What does codominance in genetics illustrate?
Who is considered the 'Father of Genetics' due to his experiments with pea plants?
Who is considered the 'Father of Genetics' due to his experiments with pea plants?
What is a Punnett square used for in genetics?
What is a Punnett square used for in genetics?
In genetics, what does the term 'pleiotropy' refer to?
In genetics, what does the term 'pleiotropy' refer to?
What misconception was associated with the blending theory of inheritance?
What misconception was associated with the blending theory of inheritance?
During meiosis, what accounts for Mendel's principles of inheritance patterns?
During meiosis, what accounts for Mendel's principles of inheritance patterns?
Which statement best describes dominant and recessive alleles?
Which statement best describes dominant and recessive alleles?
What theory did Jean-Baptiste Lamarck propose regarding inheritance?
What theory did Jean-Baptiste Lamarck propose regarding inheritance?
What significance does the behavior of chromosomes during gamete formation have?
What significance does the behavior of chromosomes during gamete formation have?
What was one of the major contributions of Aristotle to early biological thought?
What was one of the major contributions of Aristotle to early biological thought?
What role do enzymes play in metabolic processes?
What role do enzymes play in metabolic processes?
Which statement correctly describes the active site of an enzyme?
Which statement correctly describes the active site of an enzyme?
How is energy coupling significant in metabolism?
How is energy coupling significant in metabolism?
What is activation energy (EA) in the context of chemical reactions?
What is activation energy (EA) in the context of chemical reactions?
What distinguishes competitive inhibitors from non-competitive inhibitors?
What distinguishes competitive inhibitors from non-competitive inhibitors?
What does Gibbs free energy (G) indicate about a reaction?
What does Gibbs free energy (G) indicate about a reaction?
Which of the following factors can influence enzyme activity?
Which of the following factors can influence enzyme activity?
What is the primary function of coenzymes in enzyme-catalyzed reactions?
What is the primary function of coenzymes in enzyme-catalyzed reactions?
How does temperature generally affect enzyme activity?
How does temperature generally affect enzyme activity?
What type of reaction is cellular respiration considered in terms of Gibbs free energy?
What type of reaction is cellular respiration considered in terms of Gibbs free energy?
Which of the following statements about enzyme specificity is correct?
Which of the following statements about enzyme specificity is correct?
What impacts the rate of a chemical reaction in metabolic pathways besides enzyme concentration?
What impacts the rate of a chemical reaction in metabolic pathways besides enzyme concentration?
Which of the following best explains energy transfer involving hydrogen atoms in biological systems?
Which of the following best explains energy transfer involving hydrogen atoms in biological systems?
What are enzyme inhibitors typically used for in practical applications?
What are enzyme inhibitors typically used for in practical applications?
What is the significance of Mendel's law of segregation during gamete formation?
What is the significance of Mendel's law of segregation during gamete formation?
In Mendel's dihybrid crosses, what is the typical phenotypic ratio observed?
In Mendel's dihybrid crosses, what is the typical phenotypic ratio observed?
What phenomenon can lead to deviations from expected phenotypic ratios in dihybrid crosses?
What phenomenon can lead to deviations from expected phenotypic ratios in dihybrid crosses?
Which type of genetic mapping can be created using recombination frequencies?
Which type of genetic mapping can be created using recombination frequencies?
How does crossing over during meiosis affect genetic variation?
How does crossing over during meiosis affect genetic variation?
What directly transfers a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP in substrate-level phosphorylation?
What directly transfers a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP in substrate-level phosphorylation?
What sex chromosome composition defines a male in humans?
What sex chromosome composition defines a male in humans?
Which condition is an example of a disorder related to sex-linked inheritance?
Which condition is an example of a disorder related to sex-linked inheritance?
Which type of phosphorylation is driven by light energy during photosynthesis?
Which type of phosphorylation is driven by light energy during photosynthesis?
What are X-linked recessive disorders more prevalent in males?
What are X-linked recessive disorders more prevalent in males?
What type of reaction involves the transfer of electrons and plays a key role in ATP production?
What type of reaction involves the transfer of electrons and plays a key role in ATP production?
What is a key characteristic of mitochondrial DNA inheritance?
What is a key characteristic of mitochondrial DNA inheritance?
What is the final electron acceptor in oxidative phosphorylation?
What is the final electron acceptor in oxidative phosphorylation?
Which electron carrier is involved in the transfer of electrons in the electron transport chain?
Which electron carrier is involved in the transfer of electrons in the electron transport chain?
Which experiment provided early evidence that DNA is the genetic material?
Which experiment provided early evidence that DNA is the genetic material?
How does the integrity of the electron transport chain affect ATP production?
How does the integrity of the electron transport chain affect ATP production?
What does extrachromosomal inheritance refer to?
What does extrachromosomal inheritance refer to?
What is the role of chloroplast inheritance in plants?
What is the role of chloroplast inheritance in plants?
What is the primary role of bioenergy carriers within cells?
What is the primary role of bioenergy carriers within cells?
What is the major focus of the Second Law of Thermodynamics in biological systems?
What is the major focus of the Second Law of Thermodynamics in biological systems?
How do mutations in DNA influence traits?
How do mutations in DNA influence traits?
What is defined as the capacity to do work?
What is defined as the capacity to do work?
What is the expected outcome of alleles during gamete formation according to Mendel's law of segregation?
What is the expected outcome of alleles during gamete formation according to Mendel's law of segregation?
In which process do hydrogen atoms play a more common role than single electron transfer?
In which process do hydrogen atoms play a more common role than single electron transfer?
Which of the following processes occurs in mitochondria?
Which of the following processes occurs in mitochondria?
What is the significance of case studies on anaerobic respiration?
What is the significance of case studies on anaerobic respiration?
Which form of energy is specifically stored in molecular bonds?
Which form of energy is specifically stored in molecular bonds?
What are the two categories of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides?
What are the two categories of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides?
Which enzyme is responsible for synthesizing new DNA strands during replication?
Which enzyme is responsible for synthesizing new DNA strands during replication?
In which direction does DNA polymerase synthesize new DNA strands?
In which direction does DNA polymerase synthesize new DNA strands?
What is the structure formed during the unwinding of DNA at the replication site?
What is the structure formed during the unwinding of DNA at the replication site?
Which component is NOT part of a nucleotide?
Which component is NOT part of a nucleotide?
What occurs during the elongation stage of DNA replication?
What occurs during the elongation stage of DNA replication?
What is the role of ligase during DNA replication?
What is the role of ligase during DNA replication?
Which RNA type is primarily involved in the synthesis of proteins?
Which RNA type is primarily involved in the synthesis of proteins?
What is the significance of the Meselson and Stahl experiment?
What is the significance of the Meselson and Stahl experiment?
What defines exons in gene structure?
What defines exons in gene structure?
Which of these processes occurs during transcription?
Which of these processes occurs during transcription?
What is one key difference between DNA and RNA?
What is one key difference between DNA and RNA?
Which type of RNA forms structural components of ribosomes?
Which type of RNA forms structural components of ribosomes?
Which base pairs specifically in DNA?
Which base pairs specifically in DNA?
What is the primary result of DNA replication?
What is the primary result of DNA replication?
What is the main function of the terminator in transcription?
What is the main function of the terminator in transcription?
During DNA replication, what is the role of DNA polymerase?
During DNA replication, what is the role of DNA polymerase?
In eukaryotic cells, RNA splicing is crucial because it removes which sequences from pre-mRNA?
In eukaryotic cells, RNA splicing is crucial because it removes which sequences from pre-mRNA?
In eukaryotic cells, how does DNA replication differ from that in prokaryotic cells?
In eukaryotic cells, how does DNA replication differ from that in prokaryotic cells?
What is a key feature of the semi-conservative model of DNA replication?
What is a key feature of the semi-conservative model of DNA replication?
What does RNA polymerase utilize as a template during transcription?
What does RNA polymerase utilize as a template during transcription?
Which of the following correctly describes the function of a 5' cap in eukaryotic mRNA?
Which of the following correctly describes the function of a 5' cap in eukaryotic mRNA?
Which enzyme is responsible for joining DNA pieces together during replication?
Which enzyme is responsible for joining DNA pieces together during replication?
How does eukaryotic transcription differ from prokaryotic transcription in terms of initiation?
How does eukaryotic transcription differ from prokaryotic transcription in terms of initiation?
What process follows transcription in gene expression?
What process follows transcription in gene expression?
What type of RNA is primarily transcribed by RNA polymerase II?
What type of RNA is primarily transcribed by RNA polymerase II?
Where does transcription occur in eukaryotic cells?
Where does transcription occur in eukaryotic cells?
Which component is NOT found in a structural gene as a transcriptional unit?
Which component is NOT found in a structural gene as a transcriptional unit?
During transcription elongation, RNA is synthesized in which direction?
During transcription elongation, RNA is synthesized in which direction?
What is the function of mRNA in gene expression?
What is the function of mRNA in gene expression?
Which sequence is recognized for polyadenylation during transcription termination in eukaryotes?
Which sequence is recognized for polyadenylation during transcription termination in eukaryotes?
What is a significant feature of intrinsic (Rho-independent) termination?
What is a significant feature of intrinsic (Rho-independent) termination?
Which molecules are synthesized during transcription?
Which molecules are synthesized during transcription?
What role do introns play in eukaryotic gene expression?
What role do introns play in eukaryotic gene expression?
What are Okazaki fragments?
What are Okazaki fragments?
Which structure contains the necessary components to initiate mRNA splicing in eukaryotes?
Which structure contains the necessary components to initiate mRNA splicing in eukaryotes?
What is the primary role of the promoter in a gene?
What is the primary role of the promoter in a gene?
Which of the following correctly describes the flow of genetic information according to the central dogma?
Which of the following correctly describes the flow of genetic information according to the central dogma?
Which codon is recognized as the start signal for translation?
Which codon is recognized as the start signal for translation?
What does the term 'degeneracy' in the genetic code refer to?
What does the term 'degeneracy' in the genetic code refer to?
What is a distinct feature of gene expression in prokaryotic cells compared to eukaryotic cells?
What is a distinct feature of gene expression in prokaryotic cells compared to eukaryotic cells?
What is included in the structure of a fully processed eukaryotic mRNA?
What is included in the structure of a fully processed eukaryotic mRNA?
What is the main function of the cytoskeleton in a cell?
What is the main function of the cytoskeleton in a cell?
Which type of junctions prevent fluid leakage between animal cells?
Which type of junctions prevent fluid leakage between animal cells?
What distinguishes the smooth endoplasmic reticulum from the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
What distinguishes the smooth endoplasmic reticulum from the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
What is the primary role of the Golgi apparatus in the cell?
What is the primary role of the Golgi apparatus in the cell?
In which phase of meiosis does crossing over occur?
In which phase of meiosis does crossing over occur?
What are the main products of cellular respiration?
What are the main products of cellular respiration?
Which structure is responsible for lipid metabolism and detoxification within a cell?
Which structure is responsible for lipid metabolism and detoxification within a cell?
What is the term for the reproductive cells with half the genetic material?
What is the term for the reproductive cells with half the genetic material?
Which type of transport mechanism requires energy to move substances against a concentration gradient?
Which type of transport mechanism requires energy to move substances against a concentration gradient?
What feature of the plasma membrane contributes to its selective permeability?
What feature of the plasma membrane contributes to its selective permeability?
What is the outcome of meiosis II in terms of chromosome number?
What is the outcome of meiosis II in terms of chromosome number?
What is a primary function of the plasma membrane?
What is a primary function of the plasma membrane?
What is the composition of ribosomes?
What is the composition of ribosomes?
What occurs during Prophase I of meiosis that contributes to genetic diversity?
What occurs during Prophase I of meiosis that contributes to genetic diversity?
Which mechanism primarily causes genetic variation through random distribution of chromosomes?
Which mechanism primarily causes genetic variation through random distribution of chromosomes?
What is the main product of meiosis?
What is the main product of meiosis?
Which phase of meiosis involves the formation of tetrads?
Which phase of meiosis involves the formation of tetrads?
How does crossing over enhance genetic diversity?
How does crossing over enhance genetic diversity?
What is the primary difference between meiosis and mitosis?
What is the primary difference between meiosis and mitosis?
What is the site of crossing over called?
What is the site of crossing over called?
Which phase of meiosis directly follows Anaphase I?
Which phase of meiosis directly follows Anaphase I?
What ensures that each gamete receives a unique set of chromosomes?
What ensures that each gamete receives a unique set of chromosomes?
What is one consequence of genetic variation for species survival?
What is one consequence of genetic variation for species survival?
What describes a bivalent in the context of meiosis?
What describes a bivalent in the context of meiosis?
What is significant about the stages of Meiosis II?
What is significant about the stages of Meiosis II?
Which of the following statements about genetic recombination is true?
Which of the following statements about genetic recombination is true?
How does meiosis prevent chromosome doubling?
How does meiosis prevent chromosome doubling?
What primary function do mitochondria serve in eukaryotic cells?
What primary function do mitochondria serve in eukaryotic cells?
Which component of plant cells is responsible for capturing sunlight for photosynthesis?
Which component of plant cells is responsible for capturing sunlight for photosynthesis?
Which of the following structures is unique to prokaryotic cells?
Which of the following structures is unique to prokaryotic cells?
Which of the following accurately describes the function of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)?
Which of the following accurately describes the function of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)?
What characteristic of eukaryotic cells allows them to perform more complex functions compared to prokaryotic cells?
What characteristic of eukaryotic cells allows them to perform more complex functions compared to prokaryotic cells?
Which structure contains the majority of a cell's genetic material in eukaryotic cells?
Which structure contains the majority of a cell's genetic material in eukaryotic cells?
Which of the following best summarizes the Cell Theory?
Which of the following best summarizes the Cell Theory?
What is the primary role of the cytoskeleton in cells?
What is the primary role of the cytoskeleton in cells?
What occurs during the G1 phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle?
What occurs during the G1 phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle?
How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell cycles primarily differ?
How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell cycles primarily differ?
Which of the following structures is formed during cytokinesis in plant cells?
Which of the following structures is formed during cytokinesis in plant cells?
What is the significance of the Miller-Urey experiment?
What is the significance of the Miller-Urey experiment?
Which type of reaction releases energy according to Gibbs free energy concepts?
Which type of reaction releases energy according to Gibbs free energy concepts?
What can result from disruptions in the cell cycle?
What can result from disruptions in the cell cycle?
What role do kinetochores play during mitosis?
What role do kinetochores play during mitosis?
Which of the following accurately describes aerobic respiration compared to anaerobic respiration?
Which of the following accurately describes aerobic respiration compared to anaerobic respiration?
What is a key feature of both mitochondria and chloroplasts supporting the endosymbiotic theory?
What is a key feature of both mitochondria and chloroplasts supporting the endosymbiotic theory?
What does the second law of thermodynamics state?
What does the second law of thermodynamics state?
Which of the following is a characteristic of viruses?
Which of the following is a characteristic of viruses?
Which phase of mitosis involves the alignment of chromosomes at the metaphase plate?
Which phase of mitosis involves the alignment of chromosomes at the metaphase plate?
What is the main purpose of ATP in cellular processes?
What is the main purpose of ATP in cellular processes?
During which phase does the nuclear envelope break down?
During which phase does the nuclear envelope break down?
What is the primary purpose of cyclic electron flow in photosynthesis?
What is the primary purpose of cyclic electron flow in photosynthesis?
During which phase of the Calvin cycle does carbon dioxide fixation occur?
During which phase of the Calvin cycle does carbon dioxide fixation occur?
Which molecule acts as the final electron acceptor in photophosphorylation?
Which molecule acts as the final electron acceptor in photophosphorylation?
What is the primary role of the thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts?
What is the primary role of the thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts?
What by-product is released during the water-splitting process in PSII?
What by-product is released during the water-splitting process in PSII?
How many ATP and NADPH molecules are consumed to convert 3-PGA into G3P during the Calvin cycle?
How many ATP and NADPH molecules are consumed to convert 3-PGA into G3P during the Calvin cycle?
What defines the difference between photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation?
What defines the difference between photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation?
What is the main product of the Calvin cycle that can be used to form sugars?
What is the main product of the Calvin cycle that can be used to form sugars?
Which of the following statements about the light reactions of photosynthesis is true?
Which of the following statements about the light reactions of photosynthesis is true?
In oxidative phosphorylation, what is the final electron acceptor?
In oxidative phosphorylation, what is the final electron acceptor?
What process occurs simultaneously with ATP synthesis in photophosphorylation?
What process occurs simultaneously with ATP synthesis in photophosphorylation?
Which enzyme plays a crucial role in the carbon fixation step of the Calvin cycle?
Which enzyme plays a crucial role in the carbon fixation step of the Calvin cycle?
What is the significance of the proton gradient created during the light reactions?
What is the significance of the proton gradient created during the light reactions?
Which process involves the direct transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate to ADP?
Which process involves the direct transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate to ADP?
What is the main bioenergy carrier in cells?
What is the main bioenergy carrier in cells?
Which enzyme is responsible for introducing nicks in DNA to relieve tension ahead of the replication fork?
Which enzyme is responsible for introducing nicks in DNA to relieve tension ahead of the replication fork?
In eukaryotic cells, where does transcription take place?
In eukaryotic cells, where does transcription take place?
What is the primary role of RNA polymerase during transcription?
What is the primary role of RNA polymerase during transcription?
What are the short DNA segments synthesized on the lagging strand called?
What are the short DNA segments synthesized on the lagging strand called?
Which of the following processes is central to oxidative phosphorylation?
Which of the following processes is central to oxidative phosphorylation?
According to the One Gene, One Enzyme hypothesis, what does each gene control?
According to the One Gene, One Enzyme hypothesis, what does each gene control?
What role do key electron carriers play in ATP production?
What role do key electron carriers play in ATP production?
What happens during the splicing process in eukaryotic cells?
What happens during the splicing process in eukaryotic cells?
What is the primary function of DNA ligase?
What is the primary function of DNA ligase?
What is the purpose of the promoter in a gene?
What is the purpose of the promoter in a gene?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the genetic code?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the genetic code?
Which term describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein?
Which term describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein?
What is the primary role of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in ribosomes?
What is the primary role of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in ribosomes?
Which of the following mutations results in a premature stop codon?
Which of the following mutations results in a premature stop codon?
What is the primary structure responsible for synthesizing proteins in cells?
What is the primary structure responsible for synthesizing proteins in cells?
In which phase of cellular respiration does glycolysis occur?
In which phase of cellular respiration does glycolysis occur?
Which component of photosynthesis is responsible for absorbing light energy?
Which component of photosynthesis is responsible for absorbing light energy?
What is released during the water-splitting process in photosynthesis?
What is released during the water-splitting process in photosynthesis?
Which of the following accurately describes the function of the E site in the ribosome?
Which of the following accurately describes the function of the E site in the ribosome?
What is the significance of chlorophyll a in photosynthesis?
What is the significance of chlorophyll a in photosynthesis?
What drives the synthesis of ATP during chemiosmosis in photosynthesis?
What drives the synthesis of ATP during chemiosmosis in photosynthesis?
What is the role of release factors during translation termination?
What is the role of release factors during translation termination?
Which of the following statements is true regarding noncyclic electron flow?
Which of the following statements is true regarding noncyclic electron flow?
What energy conversion process occurs in chloroplasts?
What energy conversion process occurs in chloroplasts?
What is required for the process of aminoacylation of tRNA?
What is required for the process of aminoacylation of tRNA?
Flashcards
Biology Definition
Biology Definition
The science of studying living things (plants, animals, humans).
Cell Theory
Cell Theory
All living things are made of cells, cells are the basic units, and cells come from pre-existing cells.
Prokaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic Cell
A simple cell lacking a nucleus and organelles. DNA is in the cytoplasm.
Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic Cell
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Cell's basic features
Cell's basic features
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Unicellular Organisms
Unicellular Organisms
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Multicellular organism
Multicellular organism
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Cell Theory Key Figures
Cell Theory Key Figures
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Bulk Transport
Bulk Transport
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Exocytosis
Exocytosis
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Endocytosis
Endocytosis
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Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis
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Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis
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Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
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Meiosis
Meiosis
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Gametes
Gametes
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Zygote
Zygote
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Haploid
Haploid
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Crossing Over
Crossing Over
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Independent Assortment
Independent Assortment
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Bivalent
Bivalent
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Meiosis I vs. Meiosis II
Meiosis I vs. Meiosis II
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Genetic Variation
Genetic Variation
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Free Ribosomes
Free Ribosomes
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Attached Ribosomes
Attached Ribosomes
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Endomembrane System
Endomembrane System
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Mitochondria
Mitochondria
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Cytoskeleton
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Lysosomes
Lysosomes
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Centrioles
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Flagella
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Chloroplasts
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Central Vacuole
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Tonoplast
Tonoplast
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Cell Wall
Cell Wall
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Nucleus
Nucleus
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Nuclear Envelope
Nuclear Envelope
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Nuclear Pore
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Nucleolus
Nucleolus
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Synapsis
Synapsis
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Chiasmata
Chiasmata
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Reduction Division
Reduction Division
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Genetic Recombination
Genetic Recombination
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Prophase I
Prophase I
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Metaphase I
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Anaphase I
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Telophase I
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Prophase II
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Metaphase II
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Recombination
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What is the cell cycle?
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G1 phase
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S phase
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G2 phase
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M phase
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What are the key structures in cell division?
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Spindle apparatus
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Why are checkpoints important?
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Prometaphase
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What are the key structures in mitosis?
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Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic Respiration
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Oxygenic Photosynthesis
Oxygenic Photosynthesis
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Endosymbiotic Theory
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Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy
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Potential Energy
Potential Energy
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Chemical Energy
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First Law of Thermodynamics
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Second Law of Thermodynamics
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Anabolism
Anabolism
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Catabolism
Catabolism
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Gibbs Free Energy
Gibbs Free Energy
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Exergonic Reaction
Exergonic Reaction
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Endergonic Reaction
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Substrate-level phosphorylation
Substrate-level phosphorylation
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Chemiosmosis
Chemiosmosis
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Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation
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Photophosphorylation
Photophosphorylation
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Redox reaction
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Electron carriers
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Entropy
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ATP
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Energy transfer
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Gibbs Free Energy (G)
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Energy Coupling
Energy Coupling
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Activation Energy (EA)
Activation Energy (EA)
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Enzymes
Enzymes
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Lock-and-Key Model
Lock-and-Key Model
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Active Site
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Cofactors and Coenzymes
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Competitive Inhibition
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Non-Competitive Inhibition
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Optimal Conditions for Enzymes
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Hydrogen Atom Transfer
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Cellular Respiration
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Cellular Redox Homeostasis
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Chloroplasts: Photosynthesis
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Mitochondria: Cellular Respiration
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Genetics
Genetics
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Pangenesis
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Aristotle's Vital Heat Theory
Aristotle's Vital Heat Theory
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Mendel's Laws of Inheritance
Mendel's Laws of Inheritance
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Dominant vs. Recessive Alleles
Dominant vs. Recessive Alleles
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Punnett Square
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Hippocrates: Father of Medicine
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Aristotle: Classification and Reproduction Theory
Aristotle: Classification and Reproduction Theory
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William Harvey: Epigenesis
William Harvey: Epigenesis
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Fixity of Species
Fixity of Species
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Inheritance of Acquired Characters
Inheritance of Acquired Characters
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Law of Segregation
Law of Segregation
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Dihybrid Cross
Dihybrid Cross
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Linkage
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Recombinant Gametes
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Linkage Map
Linkage Map
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Sex Chromosomes
Sex Chromosomes
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X-linked Recessive Disorders
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Maternal inheritance
Maternal inheritance
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Mitochondrial DNA
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Chloroplast Inheritance
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Allele
Allele
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Transcription
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Transcription factors (TFs)
Transcription factors (TFs)
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Promoter region
Promoter region
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Template strand
Template strand
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RNA polymerase
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Terminator
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Exon
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RNA splicing
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Spliceosome
Spliceosome
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5' cap
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Poly-A tail
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Translation
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Codon
Codon
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Genetic code
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Nucleotides
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Purines
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Semi-Conservative Replication
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DNA Helicase
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Replication Fork
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Origins of Replication
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Photograph 51
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DNA Backbone
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Base Pairing
Base Pairing
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DNA Replication
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Meselson and Stahl Experiment
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Leading Strand
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Lagging Strand
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DNA Primase
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Okazaki Fragments
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Central Dogma
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Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
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What is the function of the nucleus?
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What are ribosomes?
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What is the function of mitochondria?
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Electron Microscope
Electron Microscope
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Micrometers (µm)
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Plasma Membrane
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Cytoplasm
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Chromosomes
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
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Golgi Apparatus
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Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
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Tight Junctions
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Gap Junctions
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Tetrad
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Activation Energy
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Cell Cycle
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Interphase
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Checkpoints
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Binary Fission
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Centrosome
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Kinetochore
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Ribosome Structure
Ribosome Structure
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Ribosome Function
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What is tRNA?
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Aminoacylation
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Gene Mutation
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Missense Mutation
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Nonsense Mutation
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Frameshift Mutation
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Initiation (Translation)
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Elongation (Translation)
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Termination (Translation)
Termination (Translation)
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Cellular Respiration: Energy Conversion
Cellular Respiration: Energy Conversion
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Photosynthesis: Light Energy Conversion
Photosynthesis: Light Energy Conversion
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Mitochondria: ATP Production
Mitochondria: ATP Production
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Chloroplasts: Glucose Production
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Photosystem II (PSII)
Photosystem II (PSII)
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Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
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Photosystem I (PSI)
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Calvin Cycle
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Rubisco
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G3P (Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)
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Cyclic Electron Flow
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ATP Synthase
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Stroma
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Thylakoid Membrane
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RuBP (Ribulose bisphosphate)
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3-PGA (3-phosphoglycerate)
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Study Notes
Biology: Defining and Understanding Living Organisms
- Biology is the study of living organisms (plants, animals, humans).
- Derived from Greek roots: 'bio' (life) and 'logy' (study of).
Cell Theory
- All living organisms are composed of cells.
- Cells are the basic structural and functional units.
- Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
- Developed by Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow in the 19th century.
Understanding Organisms
- Organisms are living entities composed of molecules.
- Unicellular (bacteria) consist of a single cell; multicellular (humans, plants, animals) are made of many.
- 'Organum' (Latin) refers to organisms, highlighting their organized nature.
Cell Theory and Historical Discoveries
- Cell theory: All organisms are made of one or more cells; cells are fundamental units.
- Cells only originate from pre-existing cells.
- Antoine van Leeuwenhoek observed microorganisms, enhancing biological understanding.
- Robert Hooke (1665) discovered "cells" using microscopy.
Basic Features of Cells
- Plasma membrane, DNA, and ribosomes are fundamental cell components.
- DNA and RNA are vital for cell function, guiding protein synthesis.
- Prokaryotic cells lack nuclei and organelles; eukaryotic cells are more complex, possessing these.
- Cell shape and organization are adaptations to function.
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
- Shapes: spherical, rod-like, spiral.
- DNA: single circular molecule.
- Cell wall: surrounds plasma membrane, coated with polysaccharides.
- Flagella and pili aid in attachment.
- Plasmids carry extra genes.
- Cytoplasm supports essential functions.
Eukaryotic Cell Characteristics
- Complex nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
- Transcription and translation occur in different compartments.
- Lower surface area-to-volume ratio compared to prokaryotic cells affects interactions with environment.
Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
- Cytoplasm contains membranous organelles for various cellular processes (metabolism, synthesis, storage).
- Ribosomes exist free or attached to membranes.
- Endomembrane system partitions cytoplasm.
- Mitochondria are sites of cellular respiration; chloroplasts are in plant cells (photosynthesis).
Cytoskeleton in Eukaryotic Cells
- A network of fibres (microtubules, microfilaments) supporting structure and cell movement.
- Eukaryotic cells have evolved more supporting proteins.
- Genes (specific roles) control cytoskeletal functions.
- Nuclei contribute to eukaryotic complexity.
Plant vs Animal Cells
- Animal cell organelles: lysosomes, centrioles, flagella.
- Plant cell organelles: chloroplasts, central vacuole, cell wall.
- Organelle differences reflect specific cell functions.
Eukaryotic Cell Nucleus Overview
- Nucleus contains most of the cell's DNA.
- Nuclear envelope separates nucleus from cytoplasm.
- Nuclear pores regulate molecular transport.
- Nucleolus assembles ribosomes.
- Chromatin forms chromosomes.
- Nuclear lamina: dense network of filaments and proteins.
Microscopy Overview
- Bacteria size: ~0.5 μm; plant cells can be several hundred μm.
- Units: micrometres (μm), nanometres (nm), angstroms (Å).
Common Cell Elements
- Essential structures: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, chromosomes, ribosomes, cytoskeleton.
- Plasma membrane's phospholipid bilayer controls substance flow.
Microscopy Techniques
- Light microscopes: use light (bright field, differential interference contrast, fluorescence).
- Electron microscopes: use electrons (transmission, scanning).
Ribosomes in Cells
- Found in all living cells.
- Composed of ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and proteins.
- Site of protein synthesis (cytosol, outside of ER and nucleus).
- Consist of large and small subunits.
Endomembrane System in Cells
- Includes nuclear envelope, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane.
- Regulates protein synthesis, modification, and transport.
Endoplasmic Reticulum in Eukaryotic Cells
- Accounts for much of the cell's membrane.
- Continuous with the nuclear envelope.
- Two regions: smooth (no ribosomes) and rough (ribosomes).
- Rough ER: protein modification/folding; Smooth ER: lipid synthesis/carbohydrate regulation.
Eukaryotic Cell Endomembrane System Overview
- Golgi apparatus: flattened membranous sacs (cisternae).
- Modifies ER products, manufactures macromolecules, sorts/packages materials into vesicles.
- Maturing face (trans face) and forming face (cis face) for processing.
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
- Mitochondria perform cellular respiration (ATP production).
- Chloroplasts (plants/algae): sites of photosynthesis.
- Peroxisomes: oxidative organelles (lipid metabolism, detoxification).
Cytoskeleton and Cellular Movements
- Network of fibres (microtubules, microfilaments).
- Organizes cell structure and activities.
Extracellular Components and Connections
- Cells synthesize and secrete materials (cell wall, ECM, junctions).
Intercellular Junctions Overview
- Facilitate contact between cells.
- Plant cells (plasmodesmata); Animal cells (tight junctions, gap junctions, desmosomes).
Plant Plasmodesmata
- Membrane-lined pores for small molecule transport.
- Intercellular communication and regulated trafficking.
Animal Intercellular Junctions
- Tight junctions: prevent leakage; Desmosomes: anchor cells; Gap junctions: channels.
- Functions: fluid control, structure, communication.
Fluid Mosaic Model
- Plasma membrane's selective permeability.
- Composed of lipids and proteins (fluid mosaic).
Element Descriptions (Plasma Membrane)
- Phospholipids: form bilayer with hydrophobic/hydrophilic regions.
- Membrane proteins: integral/peripheral, determine membrane function.
- Membrane fluidity and cholesterol: maintain structure and fluidity at various temperatures.
Membrane Proteins
- Integral proteins penetrate the membrane; peripheral proteins do not.
- Functions: transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, cell recognition.
Passive Transport
- Diffusion and facilitated diffusion (down concentration gradients).
- No energy required.
- Osmosis affects water balance with solute concentrations.
Active Transport
- Moves substances against gradients, requires energy.
- Types: primary (direct) and secondary (indirect) active transport.
- Example: sodium-potassium pump.
Bulk Transport
- Exocytosis: material export.
- Endocytosis: material import (phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated).
Meiosis
- Specialized cell division in sexually reproducing organisms.
- Reduces chromosome number by half (gametes).
- Crucial for maintaining chromosome stability across generations.
Meiosis: Genetic Diversity
- Introduces genetic variety through recombination and independent assortment.
- Four genetically distinct haploid cells from one diploid cell.
- Essential for sexual reproduction (combining genetic material).
Stages of Meiosis
- Two main stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II; each has distinct phases.
- Meiosis I: separates homologous chromosomes.
- Meiosis II: separates sister chromatids (similar to mitosis).
Key Terminology
- Gametes: reproductive cells (sperm, egg).
- Zygote: fertilized egg, restoring diploid chromosomes.
- Bivalent: homologous chromosome pair.
- Tetrad: four chromatids (two homologous chromosomes).
- Crossing Over: genetic material exchange.
- Haploid (n): half the number of chromosomes.
Meiosis I Phases
- Prophase I: condensation, synapsis, crossing over.
- Metaphase I: bivalents align, spindle fibers attach.
- Anaphase I: homologous chromosomes separate.
- Telophase I/Cytokinesis: two haploid cells formed.
Meiosis II Phases
- Prophase II: chromosomes condense, spindle reforms.
- Metaphase II: chromosomes align, sister chromatids attach.
- Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate.
- Telophase II/Cytokinesis: four haploid cells produced.
Mechanisms of Genetic Variation
- Crossing over during Prophase I (new allele combinations).
- Independent assortment during Metaphase I (combinatorial variety).
Importance of Genetic Variation
- Critical for natural selection and adaptation.
- Drives species evolution.
- Used in agriculture (crop resilience).
- Aids in personalized medicine (genetic tailoring).
Cell Cycle Overview
- Series of events in cell division (growth, DNA, distribution).
- Four phases: G1, S, G2, M.
- Interphase is the most time-consuming phase.
- Tight regulation crucial for cell function.
- Disruptions can cause uncontrolled growth (cancer).
Phases of Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
- G1 Phase: cell growth/protein synthesis.
- S Phase: DNA replication (sister chromatids).
- G2 Phase: organelle duplication/protein synthesis.
- M Phase: mitosis and cytokinesis.
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cell Cycles
- Prokaryotes divide by binary fission, no mitosis.
- Eukaryotes have complex cycles.
Key Structures in Cell Division
- Spindle apparatus: microtubule arrangement, separates sister chromatids.
- Centrosome: microtubule organizing center.
- Kinetochore: protein complexes attaching chromosomes to spindles.
Key Characteristics of Living Organisms
- Order: complex organization in living things.
- Sensitivity: reactions to environmental stimuli.
- Reproduction: species continuation.
- Growth/Development: size/complexity change.
- Regulation: internal balance maintenance.
- Homeostasis: stable internal conditions.
Viruses
- Not considered "living" organisms.
- Cannot carry out metabolic processes independently.
- Consist of protein coat (capsid) and genetic material (DNA/RNA).
- Need a host to reproduce.
Theories on Life's Origins
- Oparin-Haldane theory: organic molecules originated abiotically on early Earth, supported by external energy.
- Miller-Urey experiment: synthesized organic compounds.
- Hypotheses: reducing atmospheres, deep-sea vents, extraterrestrial origins.
Significance of Oxygenic Photosynthesis
- Provided life with a light-and-water-based energy source.
- Released oxygen, transforming Earth's atmosphere and oceans, enabling aerobic respiration.
The Rise of Oxygen
- Enabled the evolution of aerobic respiration.
- Reshaped biogeochemical cycles.
- Increase in global primary productivity.
- Led to the emergence of multicellular life and biodiversity.
Impacts on Ecosystems
- Supported complex food webs.
- Led to the formation of the ozone layer, shielding UV radiation.
- Facilitated the Cambrian explosion.
Origin of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
- Endosymbiotic theory: eukaryotic cells evolved symbiotically.
- Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from prokaryotic cells.
- Evidence: double membranes, distinct DNA, resemblance to bacteria.
Evidence Supporting Endosymbiosis
- Molecular/genetic evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory (ribosomes, genes).
Understanding Energy
- Energy: capacity to do work; various forms (kinetic, potential, chemical, thermal).
Laws of Thermodynamics
- First Law: energy cannot be created or destroyed (only transformed).
- Second Law: energy transformations increase entropy (disorder).
- Foundation for energy flow in biological systems
Cellular Metabolism
- All chemical activities within a cell.
- Metabolic pathways (anabolism/catabolism).
- Balance essential for homeostasis.
Gibbs Free Energy
- Quantifies energy available for work at constant temperature/pressure.
- ΔG: reaction spontaneity (negative ΔG = spontaneous).
- Exergonic (releases energy); endergonic (requires energy).
Role of Enzymes
- Biological catalysts, lowering activation energy.
- Specificity (lock-and-key).
- Influenced by pH, temperature, inhibitors.
Enzyme Cofactors and Coenzymes
- Cofactors: inorganic ions (e.g., Fe, Cu).
- Coenzymes: organic molecules (e.g., NAD, FAD); temporarily bound to enzymes.
ATP as Energy Currency
- Primary energy carrier in cells.
- Energy stored in chemical bonds.
- Released via hydrolysis (ATP to ADP + Pi).
Mechanisms of ATP Generation
- Substrate-level phosphorylation: direct phosphate transfer to ADP.
- Chemiosmosis: ATP synthesis linked to electron transport.
Overview of Bioenergy Carriers
- Key molecule: ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
- Generated by phosphorylation (substrate-level/chemiosmosis).
Types of Phosphorylation
- Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transfer to oxygen; crucial in mitochondria.
- Photophosphorylation: light-driven synthesis; crucial in chloroplasts.
Redox Reactions in Energy Transfer
- Redox: electron transfer (oxidation/reduction).
- Essential in metabolic pathways (e.g., glycolysis, citric acid cycle).
Key Electron Carriers
- NAD+/NADH; NADP+/NADPH; FAD/FADH2; cytochromes; quinones.
- Crucial for electron transfer in metabolic pathways.
Key Structures in Energy Conversion
- Chloroplasts (photosynthesis).
- Mitochondria (cellular respiration).
Introduction to Genetics
- Genetics: study of heredity and variation.
- Historical development of genetic concepts.
Historical Perspectives on Genetics
- Early theories about heredity and reproduction.
- Contrasting views on inheritance.
Key Concepts in Mendelian Genetics
- Mendel's laws: Segregation, Independent Assortment.
- Alleles (dominant/recessive).
- Punnett squares for predicting outcomes.
Gregor Mendel: The Father of Genetics
- Austrian monk, pioneering experiments on pea plants.
- Established fundamental genetic principles.
Mendel's Experiments
- Monohybrid crosses: demonstrated trait segregation.
- F1 and F2 generations: predictable phenotypic ratios.
- Law of Segregation: alleles separate during gamete formation.
Variations and Extensions of Mendelian Genetics
- Codominance: both traits expressed in offspring.
- Multiple alleles: more than two alleles per gene.
- Pleiotropy: single gene affecting multiple traits.
Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
- Genes located on chromosomes.
- Homologous chromosomes.
- Genetic variation from parental contributions.
Chromosomal Basis of Allele Segregation
- Two alleles (identical/different), one from each parent.
- Allele segregation during gamete formation.
Dihybrid Crosses
- Phenotypic ratio: 9:3:3:1.
- Deviation: linkage.
Crossing Over and Genetic Mapping
- Crossing over in meiosis I (genetic recombination).
- Morgan's experiments with Drosophila.
- Linkage maps (genetic distances).
Bateson and Punnett's Experiments
- Revealed non-independent trait assortment (linked genes).
- Deviations from Mendelian expectations.
Sex Chromosomes and Determination
- Sex determined by X and Y chromosomes (XX/XY).
- Other systems (XO, ZW).
Disorders Associated with Sex-linked Inheritance
- X-linked recessive disorders (hemophilia, color blindness).
- Abnormal sex chromosome numbers.
Maternal Inheritance and Mitochondrial DNA
- Extranuclear inheritance - maternal contribution.
- Mitochondrial DNA inheritance, traits, diseases.
Chloroplast Inheritance and Epigenetics
- Maternal inheritance in plants (Mirabilis Jalapa).
- Epigenetic factors influence development.
Key Definitions
- Allele; Gamete; Linkage.
Characteristics of Genetic Material
- Replication; Information storage; Information expression; Variation through mutation.
Discovery of DNA as the Genetic Material
- Early studies suggested DNA/protein in the nucleus.
- DNA quantity/gamete halving: early DNA evidence.
- Griffith's experiment (bacteria transformation).
Experiments Confirming DNA as Genetic Material
- Griffith's experiment; Avery's experiment; Hershey-Chase experiment.
Nucleic Acid Structures
- Nucleotide composition (base, sugar, phosphate).
- Nitrogenous bases (purines/pyrimidines).
- Nucleosides/nucleotides.
Mechanism of DNA Replication
- Semi-conservative replication (one old strand, one new).
- Enzymatic roles (DNA helicase, polymerase, ligase).
- Replication Fork.
Stages of DNA Replication
- Initiation: replication origin.
- Elongation: adding nucleotides.
- Termination: completed replication.
Gene Structure
- Gene definition.
- Promoters/enhancers.
- Introns/exons.
Gene Expression
- Transcription; Translation; Regulation.
Key Discoveries in DNA Structure
- X-ray crystallography - Franklin's work.
- Watson and Crick's double helix model.
Components of DNA
- Nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G).
- Base pairing (A-T, C-G).
- Sugar-phosphate backbone.
Comparison with RNA
- RNA structure (single-stranded, ribose, uracil).
- Types of RNA (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA).
Genetic Information Encoding
- Linear base sequence and genetic code (codons).
Mechanisms of DNA Replication
- Semi-conservative (Meselson-Stahl).
Key Enzymes and Proteins
- DNA helicase, polymerase, ligase - functions.
- Topoisomerase, single-strand binding proteins.
Replication Fork Dynamics
- Leading strand; Lagging strand; Okazaki fragments.
- 5' to 3' direction.
Replication Rates and Origins
- Bacteria vs. eukaryotes (replication rates, origins).
DNA replication (various summaries):
- Different points of view on DNA replication's mechanisms, origins, and rates.
- Including tables/explanations of the semi-conservative mechanism, protein involvement, and origin locations.
Gene Expression (various summaries):
- Various summaries detailing the process and comparing prokaryotes and eukaryotes, including protein roles, initiation, transcription, termination, and elongation.
Transcriptomic vs Epigenetic Inheritance
- Various summaries about different inheritances and mechanisms of DNA control..
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Description
This quiz explores the fundamental concepts of biology, focusing on the definition and understanding of living organisms. It covers cell theory, the historical contributions of scientists, and the distinctions between unicellular and multicellular organisms.
