Biology: Understanding Living Organisms and Cells
262 Questions
0 Views

Choose a study mode

Play Quiz
Study Flashcards
Spaced Repetition
Chat to lesson

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What does the term 'logy' in biology refer to?

  • Science of living organisms
  • Knowledge of cells
  • Theory of organisms
  • Study of life (correct)

    • Which of the following statements is part of the Cell Theory?

  • Living organisms are made up of one type of cell only.
  • Cells arise spontaneously from non-living matter.
  • All cells possess a nucleus.
  • Cells are the basic units of structure and function in all organisms. (correct)

    • What distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells?

  • Prokaryotic cells have a nucleus.
  • Eukaryotic cells lack a plasma membrane.
  • Prokaryotic cells have a rigid cell wall. (correct)
  • Eukaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles.

    • Who was the first to observe microorganisms, significantly advancing the field of biology?

    <p>Antoine van Leeuwenhoek</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do plasmids play in prokaryotic cells?

    <p>They carry extra genes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true regarding the unique shape of a cell?

    <p>Cell shape is influenced by its function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one characteristic of eukaryotic cells compared to prokaryotic cells?

    <p>Eukaryotic cells have a complex nucleus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes eukaryotic cell organelles?

    <p>Eukaryotic cells contain membranous organelles for various functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes rough endoplasmic reticulum from smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

    <p>Rough ER contains ribosomes while smooth ER does not.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following organelles are directly involved in cellular respiration?

    <p>Mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the nucleolus within the nucleus?

    <p>Assembling ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the plasma membrane maintain its integrity and fluidity?

    <p>Presence of cholesterol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is responsible for anchoring cells in animal tissues?

    <p>Desmosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do ribosomes play in eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cellular structure is NOT part of the endomembrane system?

    <p>Mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cytoskeletal component is primarily involved in muscle contraction?

    <p>Microfilaments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Golgi apparatus?

    <p>Modification and packaging of proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of chloroplasts in plant cells?

    <p>Photosynthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In eukaryotic cells, what does the term 'fluid mosaic model' refer to?

    <p>Composition and structure of the plasma membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What substance moves against concentration gradients during active transport?

    <p>Ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic structure of eukaryotic ribosomes?

    <p>Two subunits: large and small</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the nuclear pore complex?

    <p>Regulation of transport between the nucleus and cytoplasm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of meiosis in sexual reproduction?

    <p>To create genetically diverse gametes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during the crossing-over event in meiosis?

    <p>Non-sister chromatids exchange segments of DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phase of meiosis is characterized by the separation of homologous chromosomes?

    <p>Anaphase I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key difference between meiosis and mitosis?

    <p>Meiosis produces four genetically distinct haploid cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does independent assortment play during meiosis?

    <p>It increases genetic variation in gametes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which phase does the synapsis of homologous chromosomes occur?

    <p>Prophase I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the end result of meiosis II?

    <p>Production of four haploid daughter cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the tetrad formation during meiosis?

    <p>It involves homologous chromosomes pairing together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of chiasmata in meiosis?

    <p>They are contact points for genetic material exchange</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process does NOT occur during meiosis?

    <p>Replication of chromosomes before meiosis II</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does meiosis contribute to genetic diversity?

    <p>Through independent assortment and crossing-over</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which stage are sister chromatids separated in meiosis?

    <p>Anaphase II</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the reduction division in meiosis?

    <p>The reduction of chromosome number from diploid to haploid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What advantage does aerobic respiration have over anaerobic processes?

    <p>It allows for more efficient energy production.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant consequence of increased atmospheric oxygen levels?

    <p>Development of the ozone layer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is central to the endosymbiotic theory?

    <p>Engulfment of prokaryotic cells by eukaryotes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory regarding mitochondria and chloroplasts?

    <p>Their double membranes and circular DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Gibbs free energy (ΔG) indicate about a chemical reaction?

    <p>The spontaneity of the reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do enzymes play in biological reactions?

    <p>They lower the activation energy required for reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do coenzymes differ from cofactors?

    <p>Cofactors assist enzyme functions and are inorganic.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary energy carrier in cells?

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the first law of thermodynamics state?

    <p>Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of exergonic reactions?

    <p>They release energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Cambrian explosion relate to oxygen levels?

    <p>Increased oxygen levels supported larger, more complex organisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of ATP hydrolysis in cellular processes?

    <p>It releases energy for various cellular processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What underlies the importance of chemical energy in biological processes?

    <p>It drives metabolic reactions by releasing energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary outcome of meiosis in terms of chromosome number?

    <p>Chromosome number is reduced by half</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process introduces genetic variation during meiosis?

    <p>Crossing Over</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the end products of meiosis?

    <p>Four haploid cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during Metaphase I of meiosis?

    <p>Bivalents align at the metaphase plate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a bivalent?

    <p>A pair of homologous chromosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of crossing over?

    <p>It increases genetic diversity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase does independent assortment occur?

    <p>Metaphase I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of meiosis in sexual reproduction?

    <p>It reduces chromosome number and increases genetic diversity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are gametes?

    <p>Reproductive cells that carry half the genetic information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the outcome of Meiosis II?

    <p>Four genetically distinct haploid cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of genetic variation through independent assortment is essential for which of the following?

    <p>Reproduction and evolution of species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phase follows Anaphase I in meiosis?

    <p>Telophase I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is genetic variation important for natural selection?

    <p>It enables populations to adapt to changing environments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the spindle apparatus during cell division?

    <p>To separate sister chromatids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phase of the cell cycle involves the duplication of DNA?

    <p>S Phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the process of cytokinesis result in?

    <p>Division of the cytoplasm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which phase do chromosomes align at the spindle midpoint?

    <p>Metaphase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of the kinetochore?

    <p>It attaches chromosomes to microtubules during anaphase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cell cycle do prokaryotic cells undergo?

    <p>Binary fission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is NOT typically associated with living organisms?

    <p>Independent metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a fundamental component of a virus?

    <p>Protein coat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the reducing atmosphere hypothesis, which condition facilitated the formation of organic molecules?

    <p>Electron donation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What results from oxygenic photosynthesis?

    <p>Generation of energy from sunlight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the Miller-Urey experiment?

    <p>Synthesized amino acids from abiotic conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during the anaphase stage of mitosis?

    <p>Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of checkpoints within the cell cycle?

    <p>To ensure proper division and function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures is involved in the formation of the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis in animal cells?

    <p>Actin filaments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cells utilize a cell plate during cytokinesis?

    <p>Plant cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of common electron carriers such as NAD+/NADH and FAD/FADH2 in cellular processes?

    <p>They facilitate electron transfer in metabolic pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which cellular organelle does photosynthesis primarily occur?

    <p>Chloroplasts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept proposed by Hippocrates relates to the early understanding of genetics?

    <p>Pangenesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of Mendel's laws states that alleles segregate during gamete formation?

    <p>Law of Segregation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does codominance in genetics illustrate?

    <p>Both parental traits are equally expressed in offspring.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is considered the 'Father of Genetics' due to his experiments with pea plants?

    <p>Gregor Mendel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a Punnett square used for in genetics?

    <p>To predict genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In genetics, what does the term 'pleiotropy' refer to?

    <p>Multiple traits influenced by a single gene.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What misconception was associated with the blending theory of inheritance?

    <p>Offspring are a blend of traits from both parents.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During meiosis, what accounts for Mendel's principles of inheritance patterns?

    <p>The behavior of chromosomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes dominant and recessive alleles?

    <p>Dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What theory did Jean-Baptiste Lamarck propose regarding inheritance?

    <p>Traits acquired during an organism's life can be inherited.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significance does the behavior of chromosomes during gamete formation have?

    <p>It leads to the separation of homologous chromosomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the major contributions of Aristotle to early biological thought?

    <p>Classification of organisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do enzymes play in metabolic processes?

    <p>They lower the activation energy, speeding up reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the active site of an enzyme?

    <p>It serves as the site where substrate binding and catalysis take place.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is energy coupling significant in metabolism?

    <p>It utilizes energy from exergonic reactions to power endergonic processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is activation energy (EA) in the context of chemical reactions?

    <p>It is the energy needed for reactants to reach the transition state.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes competitive inhibitors from non-competitive inhibitors?

    <p>Competitive inhibitors compete for the active site against the substrate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Gibbs free energy (G) indicate about a reaction?

    <p>It indicates the spontaneity and maximum energy available for work.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors can influence enzyme activity?

    <p>Temperature, pH, and substrate concentration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of coenzymes in enzyme-catalyzed reactions?

    <p>They assist enzymes in catalyzing reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does temperature generally affect enzyme activity?

    <p>Optimal temperature ranges are crucial for maintaining enzyme efficiency.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reaction is cellular respiration considered in terms of Gibbs free energy?

    <p>Exergonic, since it releases energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about enzyme specificity is correct?

    <p>Enzymes are specific to their substrate, often explained by the lock-and-key model.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impacts the rate of a chemical reaction in metabolic pathways besides enzyme concentration?

    <p>The temperature and pH of the environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best explains energy transfer involving hydrogen atoms in biological systems?

    <p>They are crucial for the transfer of electrons, vital for energy production.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are enzyme inhibitors typically used for in practical applications?

    <p>To target specific enzymes for therapeutic purposes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of Mendel's law of segregation during gamete formation?

    <p>It ensures that gametes each receive only one allele from each pair.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Mendel's dihybrid crosses, what is the typical phenotypic ratio observed?

    <p>9:3:3:1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon can lead to deviations from expected phenotypic ratios in dihybrid crosses?

    <p>Linkage between traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of genetic mapping can be created using recombination frequencies?

    <p>Linkage maps</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does crossing over during meiosis affect genetic variation?

    <p>It introduces new allele combinations in the offspring.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What directly transfers a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP in substrate-level phosphorylation?

    <p>Phosphorylated intermediate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What sex chromosome composition defines a male in humans?

    <p>XY</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is an example of a disorder related to sex-linked inheritance?

    <p>Turner syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of phosphorylation is driven by light energy during photosynthesis?

    <p>Photophosphorylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are X-linked recessive disorders more prevalent in males?

    <p>Males have one X chromosome.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reaction involves the transfer of electrons and plays a key role in ATP production?

    <p>Redox reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of mitochondrial DNA inheritance?

    <p>It is inherited maternally.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the final electron acceptor in oxidative phosphorylation?

    <p>Oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which electron carrier is involved in the transfer of electrons in the electron transport chain?

    <p>FADH2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which experiment provided early evidence that DNA is the genetic material?

    <p>Griffith’s Experiment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the integrity of the electron transport chain affect ATP production?

    <p>It influences the proton gradient.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does extrachromosomal inheritance refer to?

    <p>Genetic transmission that does not follow Mendelian principles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of chloroplast inheritance in plants?

    <p>It involves maternal inheritance patterns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of bioenergy carriers within cells?

    <p>To store and transfer energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major focus of the Second Law of Thermodynamics in biological systems?

    <p>Energy transformations increase entropy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do mutations in DNA influence traits?

    <p>They can create variations that are beneficial, neutral, or harmful.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is defined as the capacity to do work?

    <p>Energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the expected outcome of alleles during gamete formation according to Mendel's law of segregation?

    <p>Each gamete receives only one allele from each pair.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which process do hydrogen atoms play a more common role than single electron transfer?

    <p>Redox reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following processes occurs in mitochondria?

    <p>Oxidative phosphorylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of case studies on anaerobic respiration?

    <p>They provide insights into alternative energy pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which form of energy is specifically stored in molecular bonds?

    <p>Chemical energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two categories of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides?

    <p>Purines and pyrimidines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme is responsible for synthesizing new DNA strands during replication?

    <p>DNA polymerase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which direction does DNA polymerase synthesize new DNA strands?

    <p>5' to 3'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure formed during the unwinding of DNA at the replication site?

    <p>Replication fork</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is NOT part of a nucleotide?

    <p>Amino group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during the elongation stage of DNA replication?

    <p>Nucleotides are added to the growing strand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of ligase during DNA replication?

    <p>Joins Okazaki fragments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which RNA type is primarily involved in the synthesis of proteins?

    <p>Messenger RNA (mRNA)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the Meselson and Stahl experiment?

    <p>It proved the semiconservative mechanism of DNA replication.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines exons in gene structure?

    <p>Coding regions that form mature mRNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these processes occurs during transcription?

    <p>DNA unwinds and RNA polymerase synthesizes RNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one key difference between DNA and RNA?

    <p>RNA is typically single-stranded and contains uracil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of RNA forms structural components of ribosomes?

    <p>Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which base pairs specifically in DNA?

    <p>Adenine with Thymine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary result of DNA replication?

    <p>Two identical double helixes, each containing one old and one new strand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the terminator in transcription?

    <p>To release the RNA strand from the transcription complex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During DNA replication, what is the role of DNA polymerase?

    <p>To form new complementary strands by linking nucleotides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In eukaryotic cells, RNA splicing is crucial because it removes which sequences from pre-mRNA?

    <p>Introns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In eukaryotic cells, how does DNA replication differ from that in prokaryotic cells?

    <p>Eukaryotes have multiple origins of replication, while prokaryotes have one</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of the semi-conservative model of DNA replication?

    <p>Each resulting DNA molecule retains one original strand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does RNA polymerase utilize as a template during transcription?

    <p>The template strand of DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes the function of a 5' cap in eukaryotic mRNA?

    <p>It protects mRNA from degradation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme is responsible for joining DNA pieces together during replication?

    <p>DNA ligase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does eukaryotic transcription differ from prokaryotic transcription in terms of initiation?

    <p>Eukaryotic transcription requires multiple general transcription factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process follows transcription in gene expression?

    <p>Translation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of RNA is primarily transcribed by RNA polymerase II?

    <p>mRNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does transcription occur in eukaryotic cells?

    <p>In the nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is NOT found in a structural gene as a transcriptional unit?

    <p>Codons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During transcription elongation, RNA is synthesized in which direction?

    <p>5' to 3'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of mRNA in gene expression?

    <p>To encode genetic information for protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sequence is recognized for polyadenylation during transcription termination in eukaryotes?

    <p>AAUAAA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant feature of intrinsic (Rho-independent) termination?

    <p>It forms a hairpin structure in RNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecules are synthesized during transcription?

    <p>RNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do introns play in eukaryotic gene expression?

    <p>They regulate gene expression and contribute to diversity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are Okazaki fragments?

    <p>Segments formed during the slow synthesis of the lagging strand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure contains the necessary components to initiate mRNA splicing in eukaryotes?

    <p>Spliceosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the promoter in a gene?

    <p>To serve as the binding site for RNA polymerase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes the flow of genetic information according to the central dogma?

    <p>DNA → RNA → Protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which codon is recognized as the start signal for translation?

    <p>AUG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'degeneracy' in the genetic code refer to?

    <p>One amino acid can be coded by multiple codons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a distinct feature of gene expression in prokaryotic cells compared to eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Fast processing due to lack of transcription factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is included in the structure of a fully processed eukaryotic mRNA?

    <p>5' cap, coding region, 3' poly-A tail</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the cytoskeleton in a cell?

    <p>To provide structural integrity and support cellular movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of junctions prevent fluid leakage between animal cells?

    <p>Tight junctions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the smooth endoplasmic reticulum from the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

    <p>Its function in lipid synthesis and carbohydrate metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the Golgi apparatus in the cell?

    <p>Modification and packaging of proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which phase of meiosis does crossing over occur?

    <p>Prophase I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the main products of cellular respiration?

    <p>ATP and carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is responsible for lipid metabolism and detoxification within a cell?

    <p>Peroxisomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the reproductive cells with half the genetic material?

    <p>Gametes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of transport mechanism requires energy to move substances against a concentration gradient?

    <p>Active transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What feature of the plasma membrane contributes to its selective permeability?

    <p>Phospholipid bilayer structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of meiosis II in terms of chromosome number?

    <p>Four haploid cells are produced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary function of the plasma membrane?

    <p>Regulate the internal environment of the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of ribosomes?

    <p>Ribosomal RNA and proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during Prophase I of meiosis that contributes to genetic diversity?

    <p>Formation of a synaptonemal complex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism primarily causes genetic variation through random distribution of chromosomes?

    <p>Independent assortment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main product of meiosis?

    <p>Four haploid cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phase of meiosis involves the formation of tetrads?

    <p>Prophase I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does crossing over enhance genetic diversity?

    <p>By exchanging genetic material between homologous chromosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between meiosis and mitosis?

    <p>Meiosis results in the production of gametes, while mitosis does not</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the site of crossing over called?

    <p>Chiasmata</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phase of meiosis directly follows Anaphase I?

    <p>Telophase I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ensures that each gamete receives a unique set of chromosomes?

    <p>Independent assortment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one consequence of genetic variation for species survival?

    <p>It allows populations to adapt to changing environments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes a bivalent in the context of meiosis?

    <p>Two homologous chromosomes aligned together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is significant about the stages of Meiosis II?

    <p>It resembles mitosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about genetic recombination is true?

    <p>It is the result of crossing over during Prophase I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does meiosis prevent chromosome doubling?

    <p>By reducing chromosome number from diploid to haploid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primary function do mitochondria serve in eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Cellular respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of plant cells is responsible for capturing sunlight for photosynthesis?

    <p>Chloroplasts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures is unique to prokaryotic cells?

    <p>Cell wall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes the function of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)?

    <p>Protein and lipid synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic of eukaryotic cells allows them to perform more complex functions compared to prokaryotic cells?

    <p>Nucleus and membrane-bound organelles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure contains the majority of a cell's genetic material in eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best summarizes the Cell Theory?

    <p>All living organisms are composed of cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the cytoskeleton in cells?

    <p>Providing structural support and organization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during the G1 phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle?

    <p>Cellular growth and preparation for DNA replication occur.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell cycles primarily differ?

    <p>Eukaryotic cells have linear chromosomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures is formed during cytokinesis in plant cells?

    <p>Cell plate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the Miller-Urey experiment?

    <p>It simulated early Earth conditions leading to organic compound formation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reaction releases energy according to Gibbs free energy concepts?

    <p>Exergonic reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can result from disruptions in the cell cycle?

    <p>Uncontrolled cell division, leading to cancer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do kinetochores play during mitosis?

    <p>Attach spindle fibers to chromosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes aerobic respiration compared to anaerobic respiration?

    <p>It is more efficient than anaerobic respiration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of both mitochondria and chloroplasts supporting the endosymbiotic theory?

    <p>Existence of double membranes and circular DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the second law of thermodynamics state?

    <p>Energy transformations increase entropy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of viruses?

    <p>They lack metabolic processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phase of mitosis involves the alignment of chromosomes at the metaphase plate?

    <p>Metaphase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of ATP in cellular processes?

    <p>To function as the primary energy carrier</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase does the nuclear envelope break down?

    <p>Prometaphase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of cyclic electron flow in photosynthesis?

    <p>To generate surplus ATP without NADPH or oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase of the Calvin cycle does carbon dioxide fixation occur?

    <p>Carbon Fixation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecule acts as the final electron acceptor in photophosphorylation?

    <p>NADP+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts?

    <p>Site for light energy absorption and electron transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What by-product is released during the water-splitting process in PSII?

    <p>Oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many ATP and NADPH molecules are consumed to convert 3-PGA into G3P during the Calvin cycle?

    <p>2 ATP and 2 NADPH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the difference between photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main product of the Calvin cycle that can be used to form sugars?

    <p>G3P</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the light reactions of photosynthesis is true?

    <p>They involve the absorption of light and produce ATP and NADPH.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In oxidative phosphorylation, what is the final electron acceptor?

    <p>Oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process occurs simultaneously with ATP synthesis in photophosphorylation?

    <p>Reduction of NADP+ to NADPH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme plays a crucial role in the carbon fixation step of the Calvin cycle?

    <p>Rubisco</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the proton gradient created during the light reactions?

    <p>It drives the synthesis of ATP.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process involves the direct transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate to ADP?

    <p>Substrate-Level Phosphorylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main bioenergy carrier in cells?

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme is responsible for introducing nicks in DNA to relieve tension ahead of the replication fork?

    <p>Topoisomerase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In eukaryotic cells, where does transcription take place?

    <p>Nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of RNA polymerase during transcription?

    <p>Synthesize RNA from the DNA template</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the short DNA segments synthesized on the lagging strand called?

    <p>Okazaki Fragments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following processes is central to oxidative phosphorylation?

    <p>Electron Transport Chain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the One Gene, One Enzyme hypothesis, what does each gene control?

    <p>The synthesis of a specific enzyme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do key electron carriers play in ATP production?

    <p>They facilitate the transfer of electrons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during the splicing process in eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Introns are removed from RNA.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of DNA ligase?

    <p>Join Okazaki fragments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the promoter in a gene?

    <p>To signal where transcription starts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements accurately describes the genetic code?

    <p>It is composed of codons that specify amino acids.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein?

    <p>Gene Expression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in ribosomes?

    <p>It catalyzes peptide bond formation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following mutations results in a premature stop codon?

    <p>Nonsense mutation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary structure responsible for synthesizing proteins in cells?

    <p>Ribosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which phase of cellular respiration does glycolysis occur?

    <p>Cytoplasm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of photosynthesis is responsible for absorbing light energy?

    <p>Chlorophyll</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is released during the water-splitting process in photosynthesis?

    <p>Oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes the function of the E site in the ribosome?

    <p>It serves as the exit site for tRNA.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of chlorophyll a in photosynthesis?

    <p>It initiates the light-dependent reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What drives the synthesis of ATP during chemiosmosis in photosynthesis?

    <p>The proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of release factors during translation termination?

    <p>To promote ribosomal subunit dissociation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding noncyclic electron flow?

    <p>It involves both PS II and PS I.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What energy conversion process occurs in chloroplasts?

    <p>Photosynthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is required for the process of aminoacylation of tRNA?

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Biology: Defining and Understanding Living Organisms

    • Biology is the study of living organisms (plants, animals, humans).
    • Derived from Greek roots: 'bio' (life) and 'logy' (study of).

    Cell Theory

    • All living organisms are composed of cells.
    • Cells are the basic structural and functional units.
    • Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
    • Developed by Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow in the 19th century.

    Understanding Organisms

    • Organisms are living entities composed of molecules.
    • Unicellular (bacteria) consist of a single cell; multicellular (humans, plants, animals) are made of many.
    • 'Organum' (Latin) refers to organisms, highlighting their organized nature.

    Cell Theory and Historical Discoveries

    • Cell theory: All organisms are made of one or more cells; cells are fundamental units.
    • Cells only originate from pre-existing cells.
    • Antoine van Leeuwenhoek observed microorganisms, enhancing biological understanding.
    • Robert Hooke (1665) discovered "cells" using microscopy.

    Basic Features of Cells

    • Plasma membrane, DNA, and ribosomes are fundamental cell components.
    • DNA and RNA are vital for cell function, guiding protein synthesis.
    • Prokaryotic cells lack nuclei and organelles; eukaryotic cells are more complex, possessing these.
    • Cell shape and organization are adaptations to function.

    Prokaryotic Cell Structure

    • Shapes: spherical, rod-like, spiral.
    • DNA: single circular molecule.
    • Cell wall: surrounds plasma membrane, coated with polysaccharides.
    • Flagella and pili aid in attachment.
    • Plasmids carry extra genes.
    • Cytoplasm supports essential functions.

    Eukaryotic Cell Characteristics

    • Complex nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
    • Transcription and translation occur in different compartments.
    • Lower surface area-to-volume ratio compared to prokaryotic cells affects interactions with environment.

    Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells

    • Cytoplasm contains membranous organelles for various cellular processes (metabolism, synthesis, storage).
    • Ribosomes exist free or attached to membranes.
    • Endomembrane system partitions cytoplasm.
    • Mitochondria are sites of cellular respiration; chloroplasts are in plant cells (photosynthesis).

    Cytoskeleton in Eukaryotic Cells

    • A network of fibres (microtubules, microfilaments) supporting structure and cell movement.
    • Eukaryotic cells have evolved more supporting proteins.
    • Genes (specific roles) control cytoskeletal functions.
    • Nuclei contribute to eukaryotic complexity.

    Plant vs Animal Cells

    • Animal cell organelles: lysosomes, centrioles, flagella.
    • Plant cell organelles: chloroplasts, central vacuole, cell wall.
    • Organelle differences reflect specific cell functions.

    Eukaryotic Cell Nucleus Overview

    • Nucleus contains most of the cell's DNA.
    • Nuclear envelope separates nucleus from cytoplasm.
    • Nuclear pores regulate molecular transport.
    • Nucleolus assembles ribosomes.
    • Chromatin forms chromosomes.
    • Nuclear lamina: dense network of filaments and proteins.

    Microscopy Overview

    • Bacteria size: ~0.5 μm; plant cells can be several hundred μm.
    • Units: micrometres (μm), nanometres (nm), angstroms (Å).

    Common Cell Elements

    • Essential structures: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, chromosomes, ribosomes, cytoskeleton.
    • Plasma membrane's phospholipid bilayer controls substance flow.

    Microscopy Techniques

    • Light microscopes: use light (bright field, differential interference contrast, fluorescence).
    • Electron microscopes: use electrons (transmission, scanning).

    Ribosomes in Cells

    • Found in all living cells.
    • Composed of ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and proteins.
    • Site of protein synthesis (cytosol, outside of ER and nucleus).
    • Consist of large and small subunits.

    Endomembrane System in Cells

    • Includes nuclear envelope, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane.
    • Regulates protein synthesis, modification, and transport.

    Endoplasmic Reticulum in Eukaryotic Cells

    • Accounts for much of the cell's membrane.
    • Continuous with the nuclear envelope.
    • Two regions: smooth (no ribosomes) and rough (ribosomes).
    • Rough ER: protein modification/folding; Smooth ER: lipid synthesis/carbohydrate regulation.

    Eukaryotic Cell Endomembrane System Overview

    • Golgi apparatus: flattened membranous sacs (cisternae).
    • Modifies ER products, manufactures macromolecules, sorts/packages materials into vesicles.
    • Maturing face (trans face) and forming face (cis face) for processing.

    Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

    • Mitochondria perform cellular respiration (ATP production).
    • Chloroplasts (plants/algae): sites of photosynthesis.
    • Peroxisomes: oxidative organelles (lipid metabolism, detoxification).

    Cytoskeleton and Cellular Movements

    • Network of fibres (microtubules, microfilaments).
    • Organizes cell structure and activities.

    Extracellular Components and Connections

    • Cells synthesize and secrete materials (cell wall, ECM, junctions).

    Intercellular Junctions Overview

    • Facilitate contact between cells.
    • Plant cells (plasmodesmata); Animal cells (tight junctions, gap junctions, desmosomes).

    Plant Plasmodesmata

    • Membrane-lined pores for small molecule transport.
    • Intercellular communication and regulated trafficking.

    Animal Intercellular Junctions

    • Tight junctions: prevent leakage; Desmosomes: anchor cells; Gap junctions: channels.
    • Functions: fluid control, structure, communication.

    Fluid Mosaic Model

    • Plasma membrane's selective permeability.
    • Composed of lipids and proteins (fluid mosaic).

    Element Descriptions (Plasma Membrane)

    • Phospholipids: form bilayer with hydrophobic/hydrophilic regions.
    • Membrane proteins: integral/peripheral, determine membrane function.
    • Membrane fluidity and cholesterol: maintain structure and fluidity at various temperatures.

    Membrane Proteins

    • Integral proteins penetrate the membrane; peripheral proteins do not.
    • Functions: transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, cell recognition.

    Passive Transport

    • Diffusion and facilitated diffusion (down concentration gradients).
    • No energy required.
    • Osmosis affects water balance with solute concentrations.

    Active Transport

    • Moves substances against gradients, requires energy.
    • Types: primary (direct) and secondary (indirect) active transport.
    • Example: sodium-potassium pump.

    Bulk Transport

    • Exocytosis: material export.
    • Endocytosis: material import (phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated).

    Meiosis

    • Specialized cell division in sexually reproducing organisms.
    • Reduces chromosome number by half (gametes).
    • Crucial for maintaining chromosome stability across generations.

    Meiosis: Genetic Diversity

    • Introduces genetic variety through recombination and independent assortment.
    • Four genetically distinct haploid cells from one diploid cell.
    • Essential for sexual reproduction (combining genetic material).

    Stages of Meiosis

    • Two main stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II; each has distinct phases.
    • Meiosis I: separates homologous chromosomes.
    • Meiosis II: separates sister chromatids (similar to mitosis).

    Key Terminology

    • Gametes: reproductive cells (sperm, egg).
    • Zygote: fertilized egg, restoring diploid chromosomes.
    • Bivalent: homologous chromosome pair.
    • Tetrad: four chromatids (two homologous chromosomes).
    • Crossing Over: genetic material exchange.
    • Haploid (n): half the number of chromosomes.

    Meiosis I Phases

    • Prophase I: condensation, synapsis, crossing over.
    • Metaphase I: bivalents align, spindle fibers attach.
    • Anaphase I: homologous chromosomes separate.
    • Telophase I/Cytokinesis: two haploid cells formed.

    Meiosis II Phases

    • Prophase II: chromosomes condense, spindle reforms.
    • Metaphase II: chromosomes align, sister chromatids attach.
    • Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate.
    • Telophase II/Cytokinesis: four haploid cells produced.

    Mechanisms of Genetic Variation

    • Crossing over during Prophase I (new allele combinations).
    • Independent assortment during Metaphase I (combinatorial variety).

    Importance of Genetic Variation

    • Critical for natural selection and adaptation.
    • Drives species evolution.
    • Used in agriculture (crop resilience).
    • Aids in personalized medicine (genetic tailoring).

    Cell Cycle Overview

    • Series of events in cell division (growth, DNA, distribution).
    • Four phases: G1, S, G2, M.
    • Interphase is the most time-consuming phase.
    • Tight regulation crucial for cell function.
    • Disruptions can cause uncontrolled growth (cancer).

    Phases of Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

    • G1 Phase: cell growth/protein synthesis.
    • S Phase: DNA replication (sister chromatids).
    • G2 Phase: organelle duplication/protein synthesis.
    • M Phase: mitosis and cytokinesis.

    Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cell Cycles

    • Prokaryotes divide by binary fission, no mitosis.
    • Eukaryotes have complex cycles.

    Key Structures in Cell Division

    • Spindle apparatus: microtubule arrangement, separates sister chromatids.
    • Centrosome: microtubule organizing center.
    • Kinetochore: protein complexes attaching chromosomes to spindles.

    Key Characteristics of Living Organisms

    • Order: complex organization in living things.
    • Sensitivity: reactions to environmental stimuli.
    • Reproduction: species continuation.
    • Growth/Development: size/complexity change.
    • Regulation: internal balance maintenance.
    • Homeostasis: stable internal conditions.

    Viruses

    • Not considered "living" organisms.
    • Cannot carry out metabolic processes independently.
    • Consist of protein coat (capsid) and genetic material (DNA/RNA).
    • Need a host to reproduce.

    Theories on Life's Origins

    • Oparin-Haldane theory: organic molecules originated abiotically on early Earth, supported by external energy.
    • Miller-Urey experiment: synthesized organic compounds.
    • Hypotheses: reducing atmospheres, deep-sea vents, extraterrestrial origins.

    Significance of Oxygenic Photosynthesis

    • Provided life with a light-and-water-based energy source.
    • Released oxygen, transforming Earth's atmosphere and oceans, enabling aerobic respiration.

    The Rise of Oxygen

    • Enabled the evolution of aerobic respiration.
    • Reshaped biogeochemical cycles.
    • Increase in global primary productivity.
    • Led to the emergence of multicellular life and biodiversity.

    Impacts on Ecosystems

    • Supported complex food webs.
    • Led to the formation of the ozone layer, shielding UV radiation.
    • Facilitated the Cambrian explosion.

    Origin of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

    • Endosymbiotic theory: eukaryotic cells evolved symbiotically.
    • Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from prokaryotic cells.
    • Evidence: double membranes, distinct DNA, resemblance to bacteria.

    Evidence Supporting Endosymbiosis

    • Molecular/genetic evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory (ribosomes, genes).

    Understanding Energy

    • Energy: capacity to do work; various forms (kinetic, potential, chemical, thermal).

    Laws of Thermodynamics

    • First Law: energy cannot be created or destroyed (only transformed).
    • Second Law: energy transformations increase entropy (disorder).
    • Foundation for energy flow in biological systems

    Cellular Metabolism

    • All chemical activities within a cell.
    • Metabolic pathways (anabolism/catabolism).
    • Balance essential for homeostasis.

    Gibbs Free Energy

    • Quantifies energy available for work at constant temperature/pressure.
    • ΔG: reaction spontaneity (negative ΔG = spontaneous).
    • Exergonic (releases energy); endergonic (requires energy).

    Role of Enzymes

    • Biological catalysts, lowering activation energy.
    • Specificity (lock-and-key).
    • Influenced by pH, temperature, inhibitors.

    Enzyme Cofactors and Coenzymes

    • Cofactors: inorganic ions (e.g., Fe, Cu).
    • Coenzymes: organic molecules (e.g., NAD, FAD); temporarily bound to enzymes.

    ATP as Energy Currency

    • Primary energy carrier in cells.
    • Energy stored in chemical bonds.
    • Released via hydrolysis (ATP to ADP + Pi).

    Mechanisms of ATP Generation

    • Substrate-level phosphorylation: direct phosphate transfer to ADP.
    • Chemiosmosis: ATP synthesis linked to electron transport.

    Overview of Bioenergy Carriers

    • Key molecule: ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
    • Generated by phosphorylation (substrate-level/chemiosmosis).

    Types of Phosphorylation

    • Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transfer to oxygen; crucial in mitochondria.
    • Photophosphorylation: light-driven synthesis; crucial in chloroplasts.

    Redox Reactions in Energy Transfer

    • Redox: electron transfer (oxidation/reduction).
    • Essential in metabolic pathways (e.g., glycolysis, citric acid cycle).

    Key Electron Carriers

    • NAD+/NADH; NADP+/NADPH; FAD/FADH2; cytochromes; quinones.
    • Crucial for electron transfer in metabolic pathways.

    Key Structures in Energy Conversion

    • Chloroplasts (photosynthesis).
    • Mitochondria (cellular respiration).

    Introduction to Genetics

    • Genetics: study of heredity and variation.
    • Historical development of genetic concepts.

    Historical Perspectives on Genetics

    • Early theories about heredity and reproduction.
    • Contrasting views on inheritance.

    Key Concepts in Mendelian Genetics

    • Mendel's laws: Segregation, Independent Assortment.
    • Alleles (dominant/recessive).
    • Punnett squares for predicting outcomes.

    Gregor Mendel: The Father of Genetics

    • Austrian monk, pioneering experiments on pea plants.
    • Established fundamental genetic principles.

    Mendel's Experiments

    • Monohybrid crosses: demonstrated trait segregation.
    • F1 and F2 generations: predictable phenotypic ratios.
    • Law of Segregation: alleles separate during gamete formation.

    Variations and Extensions of Mendelian Genetics

    • Codominance: both traits expressed in offspring.
    • Multiple alleles: more than two alleles per gene.
    • Pleiotropy: single gene affecting multiple traits.

    Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance

    • Genes located on chromosomes.
    • Homologous chromosomes.
    • Genetic variation from parental contributions.

    Chromosomal Basis of Allele Segregation

    • Two alleles (identical/different), one from each parent.
    • Allele segregation during gamete formation.

    Dihybrid Crosses

    • Phenotypic ratio: 9:3:3:1.
    • Deviation: linkage.

    Crossing Over and Genetic Mapping

    • Crossing over in meiosis I (genetic recombination).
    • Morgan's experiments with Drosophila.
    • Linkage maps (genetic distances).

    Bateson and Punnett's Experiments

    • Revealed non-independent trait assortment (linked genes).
    • Deviations from Mendelian expectations.

    Sex Chromosomes and Determination

    • Sex determined by X and Y chromosomes (XX/XY).
    • Other systems (XO, ZW).

    Disorders Associated with Sex-linked Inheritance

    • X-linked recessive disorders (hemophilia, color blindness).
    • Abnormal sex chromosome numbers.

    Maternal Inheritance and Mitochondrial DNA

    • Extranuclear inheritance - maternal contribution.
    • Mitochondrial DNA inheritance, traits, diseases.

    Chloroplast Inheritance and Epigenetics

    • Maternal inheritance in plants (Mirabilis Jalapa).
    • Epigenetic factors influence development.

    Key Definitions

    • Allele; Gamete; Linkage.

    Characteristics of Genetic Material

    • Replication; Information storage; Information expression; Variation through mutation.

    Discovery of DNA as the Genetic Material

    • Early studies suggested DNA/protein in the nucleus.
    • DNA quantity/gamete halving: early DNA evidence.
    • Griffith's experiment (bacteria transformation).

    Experiments Confirming DNA as Genetic Material

    • Griffith's experiment; Avery's experiment; Hershey-Chase experiment.

    Nucleic Acid Structures

    • Nucleotide composition (base, sugar, phosphate).
    • Nitrogenous bases (purines/pyrimidines).
    • Nucleosides/nucleotides.

    Mechanism of DNA Replication

    • Semi-conservative replication (one old strand, one new).
    • Enzymatic roles (DNA helicase, polymerase, ligase).
    • Replication Fork.

    Stages of DNA Replication

    • Initiation: replication origin.
    • Elongation: adding nucleotides.
    • Termination: completed replication.

    Gene Structure

    • Gene definition.
    • Promoters/enhancers.
    • Introns/exons.

    Gene Expression

    • Transcription; Translation; Regulation.

    Key Discoveries in DNA Structure

    • X-ray crystallography - Franklin's work.
    • Watson and Crick's double helix model.

    Components of DNA

    • Nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G).
    • Base pairing (A-T, C-G).
    • Sugar-phosphate backbone.

    Comparison with RNA

    • RNA structure (single-stranded, ribose, uracil).
    • Types of RNA (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA).

    Genetic Information Encoding

    • Linear base sequence and genetic code (codons).

    Mechanisms of DNA Replication

    • Semi-conservative (Meselson-Stahl).

    Key Enzymes and Proteins

    • DNA helicase, polymerase, ligase - functions.
    • Topoisomerase, single-strand binding proteins.

    Replication Fork Dynamics

    • Leading strand; Lagging strand; Okazaki fragments.
    • 5' to 3' direction.

    Replication Rates and Origins

    • Bacteria vs. eukaryotes (replication rates, origins).

    DNA replication (various summaries):

    • Different points of view on DNA replication's mechanisms, origins, and rates.
    • Including tables/explanations of the semi-conservative mechanism, protein involvement, and origin locations.

    Gene Expression (various summaries):

    • Various summaries detailing the process and comparing prokaryotes and eukaryotes, including protein roles, initiation, transcription, termination, and elongation.

    Transcriptomic vs Epigenetic Inheritance

    • Various summaries about different inheritances and mechanisms of DNA control..

    Studying That Suits You

    Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

    Quiz Team

    Description

    This quiz explores the fundamental concepts of biology, focusing on the definition and understanding of living organisms. It covers cell theory, the historical contributions of scientists, and the distinctions between unicellular and multicellular organisms.

    More Like This

    Cell Theory and Living Organisms Quiz
    5 questions

    Cell Theory and Living Organisms Quiz

    GladMoose avatar
    GladMoose
    Biology Lesson 1: Cell Theory
    10 questions

    Biology Lesson 1: Cell Theory

    ClearerOlivine7991 avatar
    ClearerOlivine7991
    Biology Chapter: Viruses vs. Living Organisms
    10 questions

    Biology Chapter: Viruses vs. Living Organisms

    RefreshingEnlightenment avatar
    RefreshingEnlightenment
    Introduction to Biology Basics
    13 questions

    Introduction to Biology Basics

    BreathtakingTheremin3432 avatar
    BreathtakingTheremin3432
    Use Quizgecko on...
    Browser
    Open
    Browser
    Browser