Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the significance of the independent variable in an experiment?
What is the significance of the independent variable in an experiment?
The independent variable is the changing factor of an experiment.
What is the role of the dependent variable in an experiment?
What is the role of the dependent variable in an experiment?
The dependent variable is the factor being measured that is predicted to be affected by the independent variable.
What are controlled variables?
What are controlled variables?
Controlled variables are those that remain unchanged or held constant to prevent their effects on the outcome.
What is the purpose of a control group in an experiment?
What is the purpose of a control group in an experiment?
Define what a treatment group is.
Define what a treatment group is.
What does replication mean in the context of an experiment?
What does replication mean in the context of an experiment?
What does it mean for a hypothesis to be 'falsifiable'?
What does it mean for a hypothesis to be 'falsifiable'?
List the characteristics of living things.
List the characteristics of living things.
How are reductionism and systems of biology different?
How are reductionism and systems of biology different?
Identify the different levels of biological organization.
Identify the different levels of biological organization.
What is an emergent property?
What is an emergent property?
What is heat of vaporization?
What is heat of vaporization?
What is evaporative cooling and what effect does it have on living organisms?
What is evaporative cooling and what effect does it have on living organisms?
Does water have a high heat of vaporization?
Does water have a high heat of vaporization?
What are the emergent properties of water in the solid phase?
What are the emergent properties of water in the solid phase?
What is the difference between solvent, solute, and solution?
What is the difference between solvent, solute, and solution?
What is a polar molecule?
What is a polar molecule?
What is a non-polar molecule?
What is a non-polar molecule?
What is a mole?
What is a mole?
How many grams are in one mole of Carbon?
How many grams are in one mole of Carbon?
What is the molecular mass for one mole of NaCl?
What is the molecular mass for one mole of NaCl?
How many grams are in one mole of H2O?
How many grams are in one mole of H2O?
What is molarity?
What is molarity?
What is pH and why do we care about it?
What is pH and why do we care about it?
What causes the dissociation of water?
What causes the dissociation of water?
What is the relationship between acids and pH?
What is the relationship between acids and pH?
How does a buffer regulate pH in a living organism?
How does a buffer regulate pH in a living organism?
Why does a low pH correspond with a high hydrogen ion concentration?
Why does a low pH correspond with a high hydrogen ion concentration?
What effect does the burning of fossil fuels have on rain and ocean pH?
What effect does the burning of fossil fuels have on rain and ocean pH?
What is matter?
What is matter?
What is an atom?
What is an atom?
What is an element?
What is an element?
Which four elements represent approximately 94% of your mass?
Which four elements represent approximately 94% of your mass?
What is the difference between macronutrients and trace elements?
What is the difference between macronutrients and trace elements?
What is a compound?
What is a compound?
What is a molecule?
What is a molecule?
What is the difference between a compound and a molecule?
What is the difference between a compound and a molecule?
What is a subatomic particle?
What is a subatomic particle?
Where are the electrons in the atom?
Where are the electrons in the atom?
What are electron energy levels and how many electrons can they hold?
What are electron energy levels and how many electrons can they hold?
What does the atomic number of an element represent?
What does the atomic number of an element represent?
What is the mass number if Cl has 17 electrons, 17 protons, and 18 neutrons?
What is the mass number if Cl has 17 electrons, 17 protons, and 18 neutrons?
What are valence electrons?
What are valence electrons?
How many valence electrons does hydrogen and oxygen have?
How many valence electrons does hydrogen and oxygen have?
What is a Dalton?
What is a Dalton?
What is a mole and its relation to a Dalton?
What is a mole and its relation to a Dalton?
How many grams of carbon equal one mole of carbon?
How many grams of carbon equal one mole of carbon?
What is a 1 molar (1M) solution?
What is a 1 molar (1M) solution?
What are isotopes?
What are isotopes?
What is a covalent bond?
What is a covalent bond?
What is electronegativity?
What is electronegativity?
What is an ion?
What is an ion?
What are the types of ionic compounds?
What are the types of ionic compounds?
What is a hydrogen bond?
What is a hydrogen bond?
What are Van der Waals forces?
What are Van der Waals forces?
What are the components of a chemical reaction?
What are the components of a chemical reaction?
What is a reversible reaction?
What is a reversible reaction?
What is science?
What is science?
What are the steps of the scientific method?
What are the steps of the scientific method?
What are the four main categories of macromolecules?
What are the four main categories of macromolecules?
What is a carbohydrate?
What is a carbohydrate?
What is the general formula of a carbohydrate?
What is the general formula of a carbohydrate?
What elements make up carbohydrates?
What elements make up carbohydrates?
Which functional groups are present in carbohydrates?
Which functional groups are present in carbohydrates?
What is a monosaccharide?
What is a monosaccharide?
What is a disaccharide?
What is a disaccharide?
What is a polysaccharide?
What is a polysaccharide?
What type of chemical reactions produce polysaccharides?
What type of chemical reactions produce polysaccharides?
What is the name of the bond formed between two monosaccharides?
What is the name of the bond formed between two monosaccharides?
What is glucose?
What is glucose?
How many carbon atoms are in a molecule of glucose?
How many carbon atoms are in a molecule of glucose?
What is glucose used for in the cell?
What is glucose used for in the cell?
In which form are carbohydrates stored in animal cells?
In which form are carbohydrates stored in animal cells?
What are the main carbohydrates used to store energy in a plant?
What are the main carbohydrates used to store energy in a plant?
What is starch?
What is starch?
What is cellulose?
What is cellulose?
Why is cellulose important to us?
Why is cellulose important to us?
What are lipids?
What are lipids?
What is a fat?
What is a fat?
What is glycerol?
What is glycerol?
What is a fatty acid?
What is a fatty acid?
Are fatty acids soluble in water?
Are fatty acids soluble in water?
What is the difference between an unsaturated fatty acid and a saturated fatty acid?
What is the difference between an unsaturated fatty acid and a saturated fatty acid?
What are phospholipids?
What are phospholipids?
Are phospholipids soluble in water?
Are phospholipids soluble in water?
What kind of lipid is cholesterol?
What kind of lipid is cholesterol?
What is a protein?
What is a protein?
What is the name of the monomer units that compose a protein?
What is the name of the monomer units that compose a protein?
What is the general formula of an amino acid?
What is the general formula of an amino acid?
How many different amino acids are commonly present in proteins?
How many different amino acids are commonly present in proteins?
What is a peptide bond?
What is a peptide bond?
How many levels of structure are present in a protein?
How many levels of structure are present in a protein?
What is primary structure in proteins?
What is primary structure in proteins?
What is secondary structure in proteins?
What is secondary structure in proteins?
What is tertiary structure in proteins?
What is tertiary structure in proteins?
What is quaternary structure in proteins?
What is quaternary structure in proteins?
Are proteins soluble in water?
Are proteins soluble in water?
What types of chemical bonds are responsible for maintaining protein structure?
What types of chemical bonds are responsible for maintaining protein structure?
What types of proteins catalyze chemical reactions?
What types of proteins catalyze chemical reactions?
What is a nucleic acid?
What is a nucleic acid?
What is RNA?
What is RNA?
What is DNA?
What is DNA?
How are RNA and DNA different?
How are RNA and DNA different?
What is a nucleotide?
What is a nucleotide?
What are the three general components of a nucleotide?
What are the three general components of a nucleotide?
What is ribose?
What is ribose?
What is deoxyribose?
What is deoxyribose?
Are DNA and RNA considered acids?
Are DNA and RNA considered acids?
What is the function of nucleic acids?
What is the function of nucleic acids?
What kind of organic compound is ATP?
What kind of organic compound is ATP?
Which of the following always contain nitrogen: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, or nucleic acids?
Which of the following always contain nitrogen: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, or nucleic acids?
Which functional groups are found in all proteins?
Which functional groups are found in all proteins?
What are primary producers?
What are primary producers?
What is an organic compound?
What is an organic compound?
What is a pure hydrocarbon?
What is a pure hydrocarbon?
How many single covalent bonds can a carbon atom form?
How many single covalent bonds can a carbon atom form?
What is a hydrocarbon, are they polar or nonpolar?
What is a hydrocarbon, are they polar or nonpolar?
What are the different types of isomers?
What are the different types of isomers?
What is surface tension in water?
What is surface tension in water?
What are polar covalent bonds and hydrogen bonding in water?
What are polar covalent bonds and hydrogen bonding in water?
Describe how plants move water against gravity.
Describe how plants move water against gravity.
What is the specific heat of water?
What is the specific heat of water?
Study Notes
Macromolecules
- Four main categories: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates
- Simple sugars are called monosaccharides; examples include glucose.
- General formula: Cn(H2O)n.
- Made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; functional groups include carbonyl and hydroxyl.
- Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides formed through dehydration reactions, linked by glycosidic bonds.
Monosaccharides and Disaccharides
- Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates.
- Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides linked by glycosidic linkages.
Polysaccharides
- Types include storage (starch) and structural (cellulose).
- Formed through glycosidic linkages via dehydration reactions.
Glucose
- A monosaccharide with 6 carbon atoms.
- Primary energy storage molecule in animals.
Storage of Carbohydrates
- Stored as glycogen in animals, primarily in the liver and muscles.
- Plants store energy as starch.
Starch Composition
- Contains two forms: amylose (unbranched) and amylopectin (branched).
- Hydrolysis of starch yields glucose.
Cellulose
- A structural polysaccharide found in plant cell walls, composed of glucose monomers.
- Important for human digestion as fiber.
Lipids
- Large biological molecules that are hydrophobic, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
Fats
- Composed of glycerol and fatty acids.
- Types: monoglycerides (1 fatty acid), diglycerides (2 fatty acids), triglycerides (3 fatty acids).
Fatty Acids
- Have long carbon skeletons; classified as saturated (no double bonds) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds).
Phospholipids
- Composed of glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group.
- Essential for cell membranes; form bilayers in aqueous environments.
Cholesterol
- A type of steroid important for cell membrane structure.
- Precursor to steroid hormones.
Proteins
- Composed of polypeptides, crucial for nearly all cellular functions.
- Functions include catalysis (enzymes), transport, communication, and structural support.
Amino Acids
- 20 standard amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
- Linked by peptide bonds formed through dehydration reactions.
Protein Structure
- Four levels: primary (amino acid sequence), secondary (folding patterns), tertiary (3D structure), and quaternary (multiple polypeptide chains).
Nucleic Acids
- DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information.
- DNA is double-stranded, while RNA is usually single-stranded.
Nucleotides
- Building blocks of nucleic acids, composed of a five-carbon sugar, nitrogenous base, and phosphate group.
ATP
- Adenosine triphosphate, vital for energy transfer within cells.
Organic Compounds
- Compounds with carbon, including hydrocarbons, which consist of only carbon and hydrogen.
Isomers
- Structural isomers differ in atom arrangement; cis-trans isomers have varied spatial arrangements; enantiomers are mirror images.
Water Properties
- Cohesion and adhesion contribute to water movement in plants.
- High specific heat stabilizes temperatures in environments.
Heat of Vaporization
- High heat required for water to evaporate, impacting climate and cooling mechanisms in organisms.
Solid Phase of Water
- Ice is less dense than water, providing insulation for aquatic life.
Solutions
- Solvent: dissolving agent; solute: substance being dissolved; solution: homogeneous mixture of solute and solvent.
Polar vs Non-Polar Molecules
- Polar molecules have uneven electron sharing and uneven charge; nonpolar molecules share electrons equally.
- Hydrophilic substances are water-attracted, while hydrophobic substances repel water.### Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Substances
- Hydrophilic substances are attracted to water and possess polar characteristics.
- Hydrophobic substances repel water and are characterized as non-polar.
Mole Concept
- A mole is a unit representing a fixed number of objects, specifically atoms or molecules.
- One mole of any substance contains an identical number of molecules as one mole of any other substance.
Molar Mass
- Carbon has an atomic mass of 12 grams per mole.
- Sodium chloride (NaCl) has a molecular mass of 58.44 grams (22.989 + 35.453).
- Water (H2O) has a molar mass of 18.013 grams (15.999 + 2 × 1.007).
Molarity and pH
- Molarity measures the number of moles of solute per liter of solution, critical for aqueous solutions.
- pH quantifies hydrogen ion concentration; it is essential in biology because deviations can be harmful.
Water Disassociation
- Water dissociates into hydrogen (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-).
- In pure water, the concentrations of H+ and OH- are both 1 × 10^-7 M.
Acids, Bases, and pH Relationship
- Acids increase H+ ion concentration, while bases increase OH- concentration.
- H+ and OH- exhibit an inverse relationship; as one increases, the other decreases.
Buffer Systems
- Buffers stabilize pH by donating or accepting H+ ions as needed.
- The carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system helps maintain blood pH.
pH and Hydrogen Ion Concentration
- A low pH indicates high hydrogen ion concentration; as H+ rises, pH decreases.
- The relationship is described by the equation: pH = −log [H+].
Environmental Impact of Fossil Fuels
- Burning fossil fuels increases CO2 levels, leading to climate change and ocean pH reduction.
- Ocean acidification harms marine life as carbonic acid forms from dissolved CO2.
Matter, Atoms, and Elements
- Matter is anything occupying space and having mass; light and energy are not matter.
- Atoms are the smallest units of matter retaining element properties.
- Elements cannot be chemically broken down and are the building blocks of matter.
Macronutrients versus Trace Elements
- Macronutrients are needed in large amounts, whereas trace elements are required in minute quantities.
Compounds and Molecules
- A compound consists of two or more different elements in fixed ratios, such as NaCl.
- Molecules are formed when two or more atoms bond covalently.
Subatomic Particles
- Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
- Protons are positively charged, electrons negatively charged, and neutrons are neutral.
- Protons and neutrons have a mass of approximately 1 Dalton; electrons have negligible mass.
Atomic Structure
- Electrons are located in shells around the nucleus.
- Energy levels can hold specific numbers of electrons: 2 in the first, 8 in the second, and 8 in the third.
Atomic Number and Mass
- The atomic number indicates the number of protons.
- Atomic mass is the total number of protons and neutrons; to find neutrons, subtract the atomic number from the atomic mass.
Valence Electrons
- Valence electrons, found in the outermost shell, dictate chemical behavior and reactions.
Isotopes
- Isotopes are atoms with the same proton number but different neutron numbers.
- Stable isotopes do not decay, while radioactive isotopes decay and can be used in medical diagnostics and dating fossils.
Chemical Bonds
- Covalent bonds involve sharing electrons; polar bonds feature unequal sharing due to differing electronegativities.
- Ionic bonds occur between oppositely charged ions.
Hydrogen Bonds and Van der Waals Forces
- Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between hydrogen and electronegative atoms.
- Van der Waals forces occur when atoms are close together and can be strong in larger numbers.
Chemical Reactions
- Reactions include reactants (starting materials) and products (resulting substances).
- Reversible reactions can proceed in both directions.
Scientific Method
- Involves observation, questioning, hypothesizing, testing, analyzing, and evaluating hypotheses.
- Independent variables are manipulated, while dependent variables are measured.
Falsifiability of Hypotheses
- A hypothesis must be testable and able to be proven false.
Characteristics of Living Things
- Living entities exhibit order, environmental response, reproduction, regulatory adaptation, growth, energy processing, and evolution.
Reductionism vs. Systems Biology
- Reductionism focuses on individual components, while systems biology looks at interactions and functions as a whole.
Biological Organization
- Ranges from subatomic particles to organisms, ending with the biosphere.
- Emergent properties arise at higher levels of organization, such as life at the cellular level.
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Prepare for your Biology test with this study guide focusing on key concepts such as macromolecules and carbohydrates. Review the definitions and characteristics of carbohydrates and understand their role in biological systems. Use these flashcards to enhance your study sessions and ensure you're ready for exam day.
