Biology Quiz

• Microbiology: The study of organisms requiring a microscope for observation
• These organisms have simple morphology
• Some microbes are not microscopic like worms and helminths
• Viruses and prions are acellular microbes and not considered living

Major Microorganism Groups:

• Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms without a nucleus that includes Bacteria and Archaea
• Eukaryotes are uni- and multicellular that includes Protists and Fungi
• Viruses and Helminths

Microbial Life and Communities:

• Microbes are ubiquitous and live everywhere
• Microbial communities include:
  • Biofilms adhered to their direct environment
  • Colonies grouped together
  • Free swimming microbes
• Not all microbes are pathogenic

Microbes in the Web of Life:

• Microbes act as producers and decomposers
• Fungi and bacteria are prime examples of decomposers
• Microbes can be nitrogenous fixers and have symbiotic relationships
  • Humans and their normal flora/microbiota are an example

Human Uses for Microorganisms:

• Agricultural technology and in environmental processes
  • Bioremediation uses microorganisms to clean polluted environments
• Healthcare, for creating antibiotics
• Fuel production
• Industrial applications

Classifying and Identifying Microorganisms:

• Two basic cell types exist: prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Prokaryotic Cells:

• Lack membrane-bound organelles, most notably the nucleus
• Are unicellular

Eukaryotic Cells:

• Have membrane-bound organelles
• Can be unicellular and multicellular

Three Branches of Microbes:

• Cellular microbes include prokaryotes (Bacteria, Archaea) and eukaryotes (Fungi, Protists)
• Acellular microbes include Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

Microbial Classification System:

• Carolus Linnaeus created the initial two-kingdom system, classifying organisms as plants or animals

Domains in Taxonomy:

• A domain represents the broadest classification level in the taxonomic system
• The three domains are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya

Bacteria Characteristics:

• Prokaryotic and unicellular

Archaea Characteristics:

• Prokaryotic and unicellular

Eukarya Characteristics:

• Eukaryotic
• Can be unicellular and multicellular

Archaea vs. Bacteria:

• Bacteria have diverse characteristics
• Archaea thrive in extreme environments
• Archaea lack peptidoglycan in their cell walls
• Archaea replication is distinct
• Archaea are more similar to Eukarya than bacteria

Domain Eukarya:

• Can be unicellular and multicellular

Kingdoms Within Eukarya:

• Fungi, Plantae, Animalia, and Protists

What is Taxonomy:

• Involves the ordered division and naming of organisms and viruses, both living and extinct

Taxonomic Ranks:

• Domain
• Supergroup
• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species

Binomial Nomenclature:

• Utilizes a two-part scientific name
• It includes the Genus and species names

Binomial Nomenclature Formatting:

• The species name is a more specific taxonomic group than the genus
• Ex: G. species is an accepted abbreviated formatting style

Simplifying Binomial Nomenclature:

• After a binomial nomenclature has been stated once, it can be simplified for ease

Classifying Organisms:

• Living organisms are classified as prokaryotes (unicellular) and eukaryotes

Eukaryote Classification:

• Eukaryotes are classified as multicellular or unicellular
• Unicellular eukaryotes are classified as fungi or protists, although some protists are multicellular and most fungi are multicellular
• Multicellular eukaryotes can be further classified as heterotrophs (ingestive and absorptive) and autotrophs (plantae)

Ancient Understanding of Diseases:

• Diseases were recognized as communicable and could spread from person to person
• Survivors were understood to develop some form of immunity
• Hippocrates may have proposed these findings
• Leprosy was thought to be communicable

Ancient Beliefs on Disease Transmission:

• Diseases were believed to be transmitted by unseen agents
• Isolation of those infected was practiced

Evidence of Ancient Disease Control:

• Egypt used moldy bread
• Rome had sanitation and public health infrastructure like the Cloaca Maxima (great sewer) and the River Tiber

Miasma Theory:

• Proposed that "bad air" from decomposing material caused disease

Microscopes and Early Cell Observation:

• Robert Hooke created the first compact microscope
• Hooke was the first to observe and name cells, viewing plant cells from cork

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek:

• Created a single-lens magnifier
• Was the first to observe single-celled microbes, naming them "animalcules"

Spontaneous Generation:

• Spontaneous generation (abiogenesis) is the belief that life can arise from nonliving matter or "life force"
• Jan Baptista van Helmont and Aristotle were known supporters

Biogenesis:

• The belief that life can only originate from existing life

John Needham's Experiments:

• Boiled/heated vials with corked broths
• Corked broths became turbid, indicating microbial growth
• Needham's results supported abiogenesis

Francesco Redi's Experiments:

• Used jars covered with different materials (lid, cloth, open) containing decaying meat
• Maggots appeared only in the open jar, proving maggots arose from flies
• His work supported biogenesis

Lazzaro Spallanzani's Experiments:

• Retested John Needham's experiment
• Spallanzani's experiment yielded nonturbid broth

Louis Pasteur's Refinements:

• Concluded Needham failed to sufficiently heat and seal the vials
• Microbes can exist in the air
• Utilized the "swan-neck" flask, preventing microbes from entering while allowing air exposure

Pasteur's Results and Support for Biogenesis:

• After boiling, contents remained microbe-free in his experiments
• Supported biogenesis

Ignaz Semmelweis & Infection:

• Connected high maternal mortality to unwashed hands and cadaver particles
• Instituted preliminary aseptic techniques

Joseph Lister & Aseptic Techniques:

• Pioneered the first aseptic technique using carbolic acid
• Known as the "Father of Antiseptic Surgery"

Germ Theory of Disease:

• Defined as specific diseases being caused by specific microbes
• Louis Pasteur is credited with creating it

Major Contributions of Louis Pasteur:

• Germ Theory of Disease
• Pasteurization: Killing harmful microbes in liquids without ruining them
• Fermentation understanding
• Disproved spontaneous generation
• Vaccination
• Microbial metabolism - different microbes carry out distinct metabolic processes
• Aseptic Techniques

Contributions of Robert Koch:

• Identified bacteria as distinct species
• Causative agents and etiology
• Simple staining methods
• Bacterial photos
• Steam sterilization
• Petri dish use
• Bacterial transfer techniques

Cell Theory:

Core Tenets:

• All organisms consist of cells
• All cells originate from other cells, biogenesis
• The cell represents life's fundamental unit

Shared Traits of Living Organisms:

• Cellular organization
• Energy processing
• Response to environmental changes
• Internal regulation (homeostasis)
• Reproduction
• Growth
• Evolution

Types of Cells:

• Prokaryotes such as bacteria
• Eukaryotes

Common Elements of Cells:

• DNA and RNA
• Ribosomes
• Proteins
• Plasma membrane
• Cytosol/cytoplasm

Central Dogma Theory:

• DNA is transcribed into RNA
• RNA is then translated into proteins by ribosomes

Cell Membrane:

• Called a fluid mosaic model due to its many components
• Composed of phospholipids, proteins, sugars, carbohydrates, and steroids
• Phospholipids are amphipathic and consist of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
• Their heads face inside and outside of the cell and they arrange in a dual layer, bilayer
• The polar head attracts water (hydrophilic)
• While the tails repel water (hydrophobic)

Steroid functions:

• Provide fluidity to the bilayer, depending on temp

Proteins functions:

• Support in cell membrane
• Signaling and communication for the cell
• Transport into of out of the cell to establish the concentration gradient

Membrane Permeability:

• Freely permeable molecules are small in size and lack charges, like gasses, and are hydrophobic, allowing passage through the bilayer's hydrophobic center

Semi-Permeable Molecules:

• Small in size or lack a strong charge distribution
• Often require assistance to "sneak in"

Impermeable Molecules:

• Large in size or carry a polar charge

Passive Transport:

• Shares the characteristic of not needing atp

Passive Transport Attributes:

• Movements follow a concentration gradient
• Solutes move from high to low concentration

Simple Diffusion:

• Solutes move directly across the semipermeable membrane with the concentration gradient (necessary)

Dynamic Equilibrium:

• The point where no concentration differences exist inside and outside the cell

Facilitated Diffusion:

• Solutes use a transport protein that is a specific carrier (aquaporins) or channel

Osmosis:

• Water's movement across a semi-permeable membrane

Osmotic Pressure:

• Pressure needed to stop water's movement
• Water can "sneak in" or use aquaporins to traverse the membrane

Tonicity:

• Refers to the strength of a solution comprised of a solute and solvent

Environmental Tonicity:

• Isotonic
• Hypotonic environments are less concentrated and water enters the cell
  • In prokaryotes this results in turgidity
  • While in eukaryotes it is cellular lysis (bursting)
• Hypertonic environments see the water leave the cell
  • In prokaryotes this results in plasmolysis with cell wall separation
  • While in eukaryotes it is crenation (shrinking)

Active Transport:

• Necessitates ATP to move solutes against their concentration gradient
• Requires carrier proteins
• Solutes move from low to high concentration
• Symports, antiports, and uniports fall under this

Symports:

• Low to high movements of molecules through same carrier

Antiports:

• High to low movements of molecules through the same protein in different directions.

Uniports:

• Low to high movements of molecules through the carrier protein in one direction.

Bulk Transport:

• Requires energy and transports large substances into (endocytosis) or out of the cell (exocytosis) via vesicles
• Eukaryotes perform this process

Prokaryotic Cells:

• Lack a nucleus and other membranebound organalles
• Only have a haploid chromosome, are considered relatively simple.
• Reproduce asexually and make up Bacteria and Archaea

Eukaryotic Cells:

• Have a true nucleus and chromosomes with chromatin
• Have membrane-bound organelles and are more complex, including Algae, Protists, Fungi, Plants, Protozoa, and Animals

Bacterial Cells:

• Are ubiquitous and make cell walls from peptidoglycan (or lack cell wall)

Archaea Cells:

• Harsh environments
• Cell walls of polymers aside from peptidoglycan

Binary Fission:

• Replication of DNA
• Cellular elongation and expansion of cytoplasm
• DNA separates into two (haploid) chromosomes
• Septum forms between chromosomes
• Separating cell divides

Prokaryotic Components:

• All bacteria share: plasma membrane, ribosomes, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, and DNA
• Cytoplasm consists of the gel-like cytosol
• Also made up of Ribosomes, nucleoid, & inclusion bodies

Gene Material:

• Nucleoid is dense area in prokaryotic ells (not bound membrane) holding genetic material in singular, haploid connecting in a singular chromosome
• These come together from DNA-binding proteins needing bacterial survival
  • Plasmids of bacterial chromosome pieces support adaptions

Ribosomes Function:

• Are essential for protein synthesis in both 70s and 80s prokaryotic cells, which some antibiotics impact.

Inclusions:

• Are for cellar storing substances

Endospores:

• Dormant spores created in a cell (inside or out) through sporulation
  • Bacillus
  • Clostridium
  • Give rise to environment once conditions available favoring vegetative condition
    • Endospores must be killed or conditions make resistant and dormant

Glycocalyces Location:

• External to the cell wall

Capsule Components:

• Capsules that are dense with mucoidal boundaries
  • Bacterial benefits that limit capsule textures and resist against phagocytic white blood cells

Slime Layers Characteristics:

• Are loser than capsules, protecting from water and nutrient cell lose supporting cell-adhering and biofilm development

The Bacterial Cell Walls:

• Provides shape and protection
• Is where attraction and protection exist Components that have cause related diseases

S-Layers:

• Protective layer on free-living bacteria

Peptidoglycan:

• Consist of amino acids and sugar

What is gram-positive cell wall?

• Is the structure on gram-positive walls
  • Contains teichoic and and lipoteichoic acids which bind to membrane, where proteins occur

Lipoteichoic Acid Functions:

• For cell wall maintenance, charge balance, enlargement when cell division is by binary fission

What is a gram-negative cell wall?

• Where the outermost layers come into play

Gram-negative cell components:

• Composed off outer membrane, periplasmic space, then inner cytoplasmic membrane and the lipopolysaccharides

Gram-negative outer membranes and their roles:

• bilayer outside of cells linked via lipoproteins, acting as the target with Lipid
  A being an endotoxin in released cell death, such like the antibiotic attacks, causing for an immune response

Functionality for outer layers:

• Supporting structure for cells

Porins:

• Proteins that are spanning transports

The gram stain reaction:

• Reactions from cell wall nature affecting shrinkage during violet coloring

In the Gram-Negative Wall:

• Thinner in cells, larger for violet removal

In the Gram-Positive Wall:

• Retract pores

The function of gram-positive cell wall:

• Allow bacterial expansion, target during cell wall breakdown

Atypical cell walls:

• Acid-fast bacterium with cell components on the outer most components which allows diagnosis for diseases like:
  • Tuberculosis
  • Etiology
  • Leprosy

Structures without cell walls:

• Mollicutes in mycoplasmas with bacteria acting as changing shape

What specializes cell structure in bacterial:

• Allows cell structure during pilis functions as "bridges" for cell production

Bacterial structure for functional mobility for the flagella:

• composed proteins to the structure to support movement

Bacterial Function Arrangements:

• Covering cells over its structure and components

Types of Taxis:

• Positive for attraction
• Negative for opposite rejection

Functional Movement in Bacterial:

• For directional purposes and changes

Domains Archaea:

• Most primitive that forms from the most primitive of domain as cells years ago, causing little directional changing structure

Exteremeophiles in domain archaea structure:

• Thriving in enviorments for unique sequencing
  • psedomurelin is common

Eukaryotic Cells structure:

Componets for eukaryotic cells that maintain basic structure needs

Cell structure:

• Allowing wall support and photosynthesis purposes

Eukaryotic structure:

• Allow cell-to-cell regonization

Key functional membrane of cell:

• Wrapped cell walls
• Chromation functions for chromosome

Function of chromosome

• Cell Division

Ribosomes function:

• RNA function where syntheis of proteins

Component of cell structure:

• Covering membranes

Golgi Apparatus'

Structure and Function:

• Membrane proteins functions for transport or protein protection

bulk in transport:

• Occurring with cells and endocytosis

Structure of Mitochondria:

• double membranes for the for matrix and inner and outer membranes

Do all cells have a same amount mitochondria:

• No can vary in count

What is the chlorophylls cells:

• Functioning light harvesting The components in structure functions

Cytoskeleton functions:

• cell support network

Major Components to Functionality:

• Function to structural transportation and function

Eykaryotic movements are structure on:

• Flagella cells, cilia, pseudopodia

Bacteria:

• Most primitive domain cells from years ago

Domain Archaea have unique sequencing for ribosome construction

• Domain composition of is pseudomrelin

What is normal microbiota:

• Those surface cells with no diseases

The terms in normal microbiota is what:

• indigenous flora

Normal microbiota are always present:

• resident, neutral

Normal microbiota is transient what:

• Present short term

Colonization effects:

• Infection, the adhesion from microbial is key to the body.

What is infectious:

• Microbes that Enter cell and effect health

What is disease:

• Homeostasis effects from cell disorder with microbial cause

When disease effects from bacterial:

• Effect the cellular in body or out

Signs of infections:

• Symptoms affecting health
• Infectious diseases result from microbial causes and display signs and or observable characteristics and subjective/ patient defining symptoms

Syndrome can be a combo of signs and symptoms where they can also be asymptomatic

Classification of Disease:

• Infectious effects and diseases can spread person to person (communicable)
  • This leads to a zoonotic in affecting human function

Characteristics of Disease Progression:

• Incubation
• Prodromal
• Illness
• Decline
• Convalesence

Disease Duration:

• Acute: Fast and treated
• Chronic: Long-term and not cured
• Latent: Dormant

Robert Kochs Pstulate:

• What agent from healthy organisms must be reisolaoted with the disease
• The exceptions for bacterial cannot be test on human

Pathogen:

• Microorganism that caused or effects the body
• Bacteria, fungi, parasites

Pathogenicly:

• How cell ability is caused by cell ability
• When colonization occur

Virulane:

• Degree/ severity from virus/ pathogens due to host effects

diseases with virulence is what:

• Hemorrhagic

INVASIVENESS:

• Ability to spread with Enzyme, leading to a high bacterial count

Immune/ cell functions

• Penetration occurs with cell ability

primary:

• Pathongen for healthy function

The condiditions for cell opportunistic are:

• When balances shift

SYMBIOSIS RELATIONSHIPS:

• The host of organism, when balanced

The cell and colonization for infection

• Step one in pathogenesis to pathogens to host portal

The Step In pathogen, that will enter cell