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Questions and Answers
Tryptophan converts to ______, which affects mood and sleep.
Tryptophan converts to ______, which affects mood and sleep.
serotonin
Aspartic acid contributes to the formation of ______.
Aspartic acid contributes to the formation of ______.
urea
The primary structure of proteins is a sequence of a chain of ______.
The primary structure of proteins is a sequence of a chain of ______.
amino acids
The secondary structure of proteins is formed by weak ______ bonds.
The secondary structure of proteins is formed by weak ______ bonds.
The tertiary structure involves multiple secondary structures folding together and can include ______ groups.
The tertiary structure involves multiple secondary structures folding together and can include ______ groups.
The quaternary structure is the highest level of complexity for proteins, exemplified by ______.
The quaternary structure is the highest level of complexity for proteins, exemplified by ______.
Proteins are comprised of units known as ______.
Proteins are comprised of units known as ______.
Proteins undergo ______ synthesis, where amino acids are assembled into polypeptide chains.
Proteins undergo ______ synthesis, where amino acids are assembled into polypeptide chains.
Amino acids can bond with each other during ______ reactions.
Amino acids can bond with each other during ______ reactions.
The linkages formed between amino acids are very strong covalent bonds called ______ bonds.
The linkages formed between amino acids are very strong covalent bonds called ______ bonds.
The chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds are called ______.
The chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds are called ______.
Protein synthesis occurs in the ______ of the cells.
Protein synthesis occurs in the ______ of the cells.
When polypeptide chains are broken, a water molecule is consumed during a ______ reaction.
When polypeptide chains are broken, a water molecule is consumed during a ______ reaction.
Only the amino acids with side chains ('R' groups) that contain ______ structures are hydrophobic.
Only the amino acids with side chains ('R' groups) that contain ______ structures are hydrophobic.
An example of an amino acid that is used in the synthesis of brain cell components is ______.
An example of an amino acid that is used in the synthesis of brain cell components is ______.
Leucine is involved in increasing lean muscle ______.
Leucine is involved in increasing lean muscle ______.
The building blocks of proteins are called ______.
The building blocks of proteins are called ______.
A chain of amino acids linked by ______ forms a polypeptide.
A chain of amino acids linked by ______ forms a polypeptide.
The specific sequence of ______ in a polypeptide determines the protein's structure and function.
The specific sequence of ______ in a polypeptide determines the protein's structure and function.
Proteins are synthesized through a process known as ______.
Proteins are synthesized through a process known as ______.
In the ______ structure of proteins, polypeptide chains fold into specific shapes.
In the ______ structure of proteins, polypeptide chains fold into specific shapes.
The ______ structure of proteins describes the linear sequence of amino acids.
The ______ structure of proteins describes the linear sequence of amino acids.
Amino acids contain an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a ______ group.
Amino acids contain an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a ______ group.
The main function of amino acids in living organisms is to serve as ______ for protein synthesis.
The main function of amino acids in living organisms is to serve as ______ for protein synthesis.
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Study Notes
DNA Structure
- DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid
- DNA is composed of two chains of nucleotides, which form a double helix
- Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base
- The four DNA bases are adenine (A), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and guanine (G)
- The bases are connected by hydrogen bonds
RNA Structure
- RNA stands for ribonucleic acid
- RNA is similar to DNA but has a different sugar: ribose instead of deoxyribose
- RNA has only one strand, unlike DNA's double helix structure
- RNA uses Uracil (U) in place of Thymine (T)
Amino Acids
- There are 20 different amino acids
- Some amino acids are hydrophilic (attracted to water) while others are hydrophobic (repelled by water)
- Only those with side chains (R groups) containing ring structures are hydrophobic
Amino Acids in the Body
- Serine: Used in the synthesis of components in brain cell membranes and neurons
- Leucine: Involved in increasing lean muscle mass
- Valine: High levels are associated with insulin resistance and diabetes
- Tryptophan: Converts to serotonin, which affects mood and sleep
- Aspartic acid: Contributes to the formation of urea
Protein Structure
- Amino acids form polypeptide chains
- Polypeptide chains can be non-linear
- Primary structure: Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, determined by genes
- Secondary structure: Occurs when amino acid sequences are linked by weak hydrogen bonds, resulting in α-helix or β-pleated sheet structures
- Tertiary structure: The folding of secondary structures, involving hydrogen, disulfide, ionic, and hydrophobic interactions; may have prosthetic groups attached, such as haem in haemoglobin, and forms the structures of enzymes
- Quaternary structure: The highest level of complexity for proteins; involves multiple polypeptide chains, such as in haemoglobin
How Polypeptides are formed
- Amino acids bond with each other during condensation reactions
- When amino acids join, they form peptide bonds, which are strong covalent bonds
- A water molecule is released during condensation
- Polypeptide chain: a chain of many amino acids linked by peptide bonds
How Polypeptides are Broken
- When a polypeptide chain is broken, hydrolysis occurs
- A water molecule is consumed during hydrolysis
- An example is when pepsin digests proteins in the stomach
Protein Synthesis
- Protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes of the cells
- Proteins are comprised of amino acid units that form polypeptide chains.
- These chains can come together to form proteins of increasing complexity.
Inhibition
- Competitive inhibition: An inhibitor binds to the active site of an enzyme, preventing the substrate from binding. Increasing substrate concentration can reverse the effects of competitive inhibition.
- Non-competitive inhibition: An inhibitor binds to an allosteric site, changing the active site's shape. Increasing substrate concentration is futile in reversing the effects of non-competitive inhibition.
- Non-competitive inhibition has a higher tendency to be irreversible because there is a higher chance of permanent distortion of the enzyme's shape.
Nucleic Acids
- DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid is mainly found in the nucleus of cells and its role is to produce a genetic code to express certain traits such as eye colour, blood type, and the presence or absence of disease.
- RNA: Ribonucleic acid is also mainly found in the nucleus of cells and works with DNA to create proteins.
- The primary difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar they contain: DNA uses deoxyribose, while RNA uses ribose.
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